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RELATIVE CLAUSES
RELATIVE CLAUSES
For a start, let's analyse the relevant elements we have to bear in mind when dealing with the relative clauses:
The boy who came to the party studied with me at the elementary school.
Main clause: The boy studied with me at the elementary school.
Relative clause: who came to the party
Antecedent: The boy
Relative pronoun: who
Why do we use the relative clauses? We use them either to give essential information about the antecedent (defining relative clauses) or just offer some extra information that can be omitted without changing the overall meaning of the sentence (non-defining relative clauses).
Another important thing of relative clauses is the connection you have between the antecedent and the relative clause, as this will affect the kind of relative pronoun you will need. The connection could be one of subject, object, or possession.
Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses are essential to the understanding of the message, so you can never omit them. Therefore, the intonation rises till the end of the relative clause.
- We use the relative pronoun WHO (or THAT) when the antecedent is a person and is the subject or object of the relative clause.
Example: The boy who/that came to the party.
- We use the relative pronoun WHICH (or THAT) when the antecedent is an animal or a thing and is the subject or object of the relative clause.
Example: The book which/that is on the table.
You can omit the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the relative clause:
Example: The boy (who) you saw at the party.
Example: The dog (which) you saw in the street.
Pay attention to the interesting use and position of prepositions (El perro con el que ella jugaba...).
- We use the relative pronoun WHOSE to indicate possession.
Example: That’s the man whose wife is waiting for the bus. (His wife is waiting for the bus.)
- We use the relative pronoun WHERE to indicate a place. It can be substituted by "THAT/WHICH + preposition".
Example: We visited the church where you got married // the church that you got married at. (You got married there/in that church.)
Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses provide extra information about the antecedent, so they are not essential to the understanding of the message and can be omitted. They are enclosed in commas and the relative pronoun can never be omitted. The relative pronoun THAT can never be used.
- We use the relative pronoun WHO when the antecedent is a person and is the subject or object of the relative clause.
Example: Mr. Smith, who is married to a famous actress, is my boss.
- We use the relative pronoun WHICH when the antecedent is an animal or a thing and is the subject or object of the relative clause.
Example: I live in Lobres, which is a small village not far from Salobreña.
- We use the relative pronoun WHOSE to indicate possession.
Example: Mr. Smith, whose wife is waiting for the bus, is my boss.
- We use the relative pronoun WHERE to indicate a place. It can be substituted by "WHICH + preposition".
Example: We visited Buckingham Palace, where the Queen lives.
More exercises...
Fill in the gaps with the appropriate RELATIVE PRONOUN (who, which, where) and then say which sentences can have the relative pronoun THAT
1. I went to see the doctor ................ had helped my sister.
2. That is the hospital .................... the doctor works.
3. The dog .................. bit me belonged to my neighbour.
4. The woman ...................... phoned wanted to talk to my mother.
5. My mother bought the dress in the shop ....................... we saw the red sweater.
6. He is the architect .......................... designed the new bridge over the River Thames.
7. A library is a place ........................ people can read books.
8. Books are things ........................... give you a lot of information about different topics.
Now define what 'a student' is.
Insert the second sentences into the first ones by means of a WHOSE-relative clause.
1. The house is beautiful. Its windows are open.
2. He was wearing a cap. Its colour was electric green.
3. The woman is on the phone. Her name is Greek.
4. Look at the man. You met his son at the party.
5. Paris is the city. Its main monument is the Eiffel Tower.
Fill in the gaps with appropriate relative pronouns.
In which sentences do you understand the message without the need of the relative clause? ___________________
Remember that NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES go in between commas.
1. A pensioner is a person ____ no longer works and gets money from the state.
2. My sister ____ was injured in the accident is now in hospital.
3. The World Trade Centre skyscrapers ______ thousands of people worked suffered a terrorist attack and were destroyed on 11th September, 2001.
4. The woman _____ lives next door is a Science teacher at my school.
5. Do you like the top _____ my sister is wearing?
6. I had never been to Salobreña Hotel ___ my uncle John recommended to me.
7. The girls ____ I talked to after the lecture were very friendly.
8. My English teacher used to like Stevie Wonder _____ is a famous American musician when he was young.
9. Are these the keys _____ you were looking for?
10. Mary Jo ___ you can always rely on had incredible marks last year.
Exclamatory sentences + SO / SUCH
Exclamatory sentences + SO / SUCH
So, such
So, such
So + adjective or adverb + (that) …
We use so + adjective or adverb.
Why don’t you try to understand? You are so stubborn!
You’re getting on my nerves. Why do you drive so slowly?
We often use so + adjective or adverb + (that) …
He is so good (that) he gets bored when he plays against me.
John drives so slowly (that) other drivers get impatient around him.
Such a + (adjective) + noun + (that) …
We use such a + (adjective) + countable singular noun
I love her. She is such a brilliant actress.
It was such a party! We had a lot of fun.
We often use such a + (adjective) + countable singular noun + (that) …
It had been such a terrible day (that) I just wanted to go to bed.
He is such a liar (that) nobody trusts him any more.
Such + (adjective) + noun + (that) …
We use such + (adjective) + uncountable noun or plural noun
The trip was a disaster. We had such terrible weather!
Everybody loves being with Tom. He tells such funny stories!
We often use such + (adjective) + uncountable noun or plural noun + (that) …
We had such terrible weather (that) we decided to go back home.
She said such nice things (that) we were all moved.
So and such: meaning
So and such: meaning
We can use so and such to make the meaning of an adjective, adverb or noun stronger (=very/really).
Why did you do it? You are so stupid!
He was such a terrible father that now his kids don’t want to be around him.
We can also use so and such to mean ‘like this’.
Sorry I didn’t call. I didn’t know it was so important for you. (=important like this).
I don’t understand how you could make such a terrible mistake. (= a mistake like this)
So much, so many
So much, so many
So much + uncountable noun + (that) …
We use so much + an uncountable noun.
Did you see her house? I didn’t know she had so much money.
I wish you wouldn’t spend so much time on the phone.
We often use so much + uncountable noun + (that) …
She always cooks so much food (that) we have to throw half of it away.
There is so much furniture (that) it’s difficult to walk around the house.
So many + plural noun + (that) …
We use so many + a plural noun.
He couldn’t even walk among so many fans.
You don’t need to repeat everything so many times.
We often use so many + plural noun + (that) …
There were so many people at the concert (that) we didn’t really enjoy it.
She had so many problems (that) she just didn’t know what to do.
What and how
What and how
WHAT is used in exclamatory sentences when it is followed by a NOUN or a NOUN PHRASE. It works exactly the same as SUCH.
Examples: What a (big) house he has bought! >>> He has bought such a (big) house.
What an (easy) exam we had at the Official Language School in Motril! >>> We had such an (easy) exam....
What (good) basketball players we have in Spain! >>> We have such (good) basketball players in Spain.
What (good) wine they make in Itrabo! >>> They make such (good) wine in Itrabo.
HOW is used in exclamatory sentences when it is followed by an ADJECTIVE or an ADVERB. It works exactly the same as SO.
Examples: How expensive it is the car you bought! >>> The car you bought is so expensive.
How carefully Fernando Alonso drives when it rains! >>>> Fernando Alonso drives so carefully when it rains.
Remember you can also use SO with NOUNS when talking about quantity. In that case, you will need MUCH & MANY depending on the noun.
Example: We have got so many books to read and so much homework to do this year.
More exercises...
Some sentences to translate into English:
1. ¡Qué bien canta mi primo!
2. ¡Qué canción tan bonita él canto en la fiesta!
3. ¡Qué ejercicio!
4. ¡Qué ejercicio tan fácil estamos haciendo!
5. ¡Qué frío hace en Ítrabo!
6. ¡Qué buen queso hacen en Francia!
7. ¡Qué buenos futbolistas hay en Alemania!
Complete the exclamatory sentences and then fill in the gaps with SO & SUCH+articles if needed.
1. ___________ unreliable McLaren is! Yes, but Alonso drove ……….… carefully that he finished P.7 after the puncture.
2. __________ tasty ham they have in Trevélez! They have …………. good conditions there.
3. _____________ funny this film is! Well, the actors aren’t ………… funny.
4. _____________ fast Usain Bolt runs! He is ………… fast runner.
Both, either, neither
Both, either, neither
Both / either / neither + noun
Both / either / neither + noun
We can use both/either/neither + noun
I like both cars.
You can park on either side of the street.
Neither parent was at the meeting.
Note that we use both + plural noun and either/neither + singular noun.
Both (of) / either of / neither of
Both (of) / either of / neither of
We can use both (of) / either of / neither of + the/these/my/her/Peter’s/etc. + noun
Both (of) your parents are really nice.
Either of those two dates is perfect for the wedding. (=We can choose one or the other)
Neither of the tennis players had a great game.
Note that we don’t need of after both.
Both of your parents are really nice. = Both your parents are really nice.
We can use both of / either of / neither of + us/you/them
Both them did very well in the exam.
Both of them did very well in the exam.
Can either of you give me a coin for the vending machine?
Neither of us knows the truth.
Both / either / neither (without a noun)
Both / either / neither (without a noun)
We can use both/either/neither alone, without a noun.
A: Do you speak French or Spanish? B: I speak both.
A: Do you want tea or coffee? B: Either. I don’t mind.
A: Which car do you prefer? B: Neither. I think both of them are horrible.
Both … and …/ either … or … / neither … nor …
Both … and …/ either … or … / neither … nor …
We can say both … and …/ either … or … / neither … nor … to mention the two things or people that we are talking about.
She ate both the rice and the meat.
Both Susan and Peter helped me with my report.
You need to speak one foreign language, either Spanish or French.
You can either wait here or go home.
I like neither maths nor physics.
He neither called nor texted.
Remember this!
Remember this!
Use either and neither with a singular verb.
Either candidate is good.
Neither of the candidates is good.
(not) either= neither.
I don’t like either of the options. = I like neither of the options.
The word neither is negative, so we use it with positive verbs.
Neither John nor Paula can’t come.
Neither John nor Paula can come.
We also use the word both with positive verbs. We can only use either with negative verbs.
I didn’t like both/neither of the pictures.
I didn’t like either of the pictures.
More exercises...
Complete the sentences with appropriate phrases.
BOTH OF THEM, NEITHER OF THEM, ALL OF THEM, NONE OF THEM... + neither...nor, both...and, either...or
BOTH OF THEM, NEITHER OF THEM, ALL OF THEM, NONE OF THEM... + neither...nor, both...and, either...or
1. ____________ Messi __________ Higuain play football, but ____________________ plays for the Spanish national team.
2. _________________________ the Spanish football players won the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award even if ___________________ are World champions and they have won twice the European Championship in the latest years.
3. ____________ Nerea __________ Fausto will have to do the exercise on the blackboard.
4. The Callejón Bros are ____________ footballers. _______________________ are from Motril, but _____________________________ will ever play for FC Barcelona.
5. Albert has brought exams for ______________________ us, but ___________________ is happy with this surprise exam.
6. ________________ Lobres _______________ Molvízar is on the coast.
And now translate these sentences into English.
7. Tanto mi padre como mi madre fueron a la universidad. De hecho, ambos trabajan en la misma oficina, aunque a ninguno de los dos les gusta trabajar en Madrid.
8. Todos mis amigos salen los sábados por la noche porque ninguno de sus padres les dice nada.
9. Sin embargo, ni mi padre ni mi madre me dejan salir por la noche porque dicen que todas las calles son muy peligrosas cuando oscurece.
10. Entonces, si quieres venir a mi fiesta de cumpleaños, o bien te quedas a dormir en mi casa o bien vienen tus padres a recogerte.
Active vs Passive voice
Active vs Passive voice
When A does B, we have two possible ways of talking about it: active or passive. In active sentences, A is the subject (before the verb). In passive sentences, B is the subject. Check the following examples:
Somebody cleaned the classroom yesterday. (Active)
The classroom was cleaned every day. (Passive)
As you can see, the object of an active sentence is the subject of a passive sentence. You can learn how to form the passive in all the different verb tenses here.
When do we use the passive?
When do we use the passive?
The passive is more formal than the active and is more common in written language. We often use the passive when we don’t know, when it is obvious, or when we don’t want to say who or what is responsible for the action.
A bank was robbed yesterday. (We don’t know who robbed the bank.)
The robber was arrested last night. (It’s obvious that the police arrested the robber.)
I was told that you insulted my brother. (I don’t want to say who told me.)
Jurassic Park was filmed by Spielberg in 1993. (I’m talking about Jurassic Park and not about Spielberg.)
The passive voice is very common in the news and in formal writing.
Arsenal have been defeated 3‐0, and they are now 4th in the table.
The British embassy in Israel has been destroyed by an earthquake.
The Catalan election will be held next September.
Passive voice + by
Passive voice + by
We can use by to say who or what is responsible for the action.
The painting was bought by a very rich American.
Penicillin was invented by Alexander Fleming.
More exercises...
Passive voice practice: Transforming active sentences.
Students use computers at school.
Some people buy things on the Internet.
Our teacher created a blog to improve our English some years ago.
Have many students visited it yet?
We will do selectivity exams every month.
Indirect speech - Reported speech
Indirect speech - Reported speech
What is indirect speech or reported speech?
What is indirect speech or reported speech?
When we tell people what another person said or thought, we often use reported speech or indirect speech. To do that, we need to change verb tenses (present, past, etc.) and pronouns (I, you, my, your, etc.) if the time and speaker are different. For example, present tenses become past, I becomes he or she, and my becomes his or her, etc.
Sally: ‘I don’t have time.’ ⇒ Sally said that she didn’t have time.
Peter: ‘I am tired .’ ⇒ He said that he was tired.
Omission of that
Omission of that
We often leave out that after reporting verbs like say, think, etc.
She said she was late. (=She said that she was late.)
I thought I would get the job.
Say or tell?
Say or tell?
The most common verbs we use in reported speech are say and tell. We must pay attention here. We say tell somebody something and say something (to somebody).
They said me (that) they would help me.
They told me (that) they would help me.
He told (that) he didn’t have a car.
He said (that) he didn’t have a car.
Tense changes in indirect speech
Tense changes in indirect speech
When a person said something in the past, and now we tell somebody what that person said, the time is different, and for this reason, the verb tenses change.
Pronoun changes in indirect speech
Pronoun changes in indirect speech
In reported or indirect speech, we must also pay attention to the use of pronouns. When a person tells us something, he or she uses the first person (I, me, my, we, us, our) to talk about himself or herself and the second person (you, your) to talk about us, the person listening. But when we tell someone else what that person said, we are going to use the third person (he, she, his, her, etc.) to talk about the speaker and the first person (I, me, my) to talk about ourselves, the listener.
‘I will help you.’ ⇒ He said that he would help me.
‘That’s my pen.’ ⇒ She said that it was her pen.
‘I need your help.’ ⇒ She said that she needed my help.
Tense changes in indirect speech
Tense changes in indirect speech
When a person said something in the past, and now we tell somebody what that person said, the time is different, and for this reason, the verb tenses change. Look at a summary of these changes.
Changes in expressions
Changes in expressions
There are adverbs or expressions of time and place that change when we report what someone says. Here you have a list.
More exercises...
Reported Speech Practice: Transforming Direct Speech
"I don't like noisy people", said Albert.
"They're laughing at me", said Jane to her mother.
"Don't be nervous now", the teacher to his students.
The students: "We wrote a composition for Albert yesterday."
"What have you got for me?", John to his friends.
Future forms
Future forms
FUTURE-TENSES-COMPARISON.pdfPredictions
Predictions
We use will to talk about something we think that will happen:
I think he’ll win the election.
He will be a good doctor.
We use be going to to talk about something that is very near to happen or that we see is going to happen (there is present evidence)
Don’t drive like a crazy man. We’re going to have an accident!
The doctor said I’m going to have a girl.
Decisions
Decisions
We use will for decisions that we take at the moment of speaking (instant decisions).
‘Oh, we don’t have sugar.’ ‘Don’t worry, I’ll buy some.’
We use be going to for decisions that we have already taken at the moment of speaking (intentions or plans).
‘Why are you undressing?’ ‘Because I’m going to go to the swimming pool.’
Arrangements
Arrangements
We often use the present continuous to talk about future events that have already been planned or decided. When we use the present continuous for arrangements, we must always include when (at 7, this evening, next month, etc.) in the sentence.
I’m seeing the dentist at 6.
We are getting married next week.
I’m flying to New York tomorrow morning.
We can also use be going to for future arrangements.
I’m going to play tennis with Elisabeth today.
Future time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before, after)
Future time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before, after)
Use the present simple to talk about the future in sentences with when, as soon as, until, before and after.
I’ll retire when I‘ll be 70.
I’ll retire when I‘m 70.
I won’t call you until I will arrive.
I won’t call you until I arrive.
Other uses of will
Other uses of will
Promises and refusals
I will help you whenever you need me.
I won’t lend him my car.
Future facts
The president will visit the Vatican next November.
Offers
We use I will in statements or shall I in questions.
I’ll carry that bag for you.
Shall I organise the meeting?
Suggestions
We use shall we…?
Shall we eat out today?
Requests
When we ask someone to do something for us.
Will you open the door, please?
May or might as a future form
May or might as a future form
We use may or might for possible actions in the future (when ‘we are not sure’). Compare:
I’ll be late for dinner today. (=I am sure.)
I might be late for dinner today. (=It’s possible, but I am not sure.)
I’m going to Denmark next September. (=Sure.)
I might go to Denmark next September. (=Not sure.)
We use may or might for things that will possibly happen in the future, but we are not too sure. It’s like a prediction about something that we think perhaps will happen.
The economy might suffer a global recession next year.
Temperatures may go up next week.
We use may or might not for actions or things that will possibly not happen.
She looks very tired. She might not come with us.
We may not have enough time to finish the report for tomorrow.
More exercises...
First, decide what kind of action it is (a. arrangement; b. general prediction; c. plan/decision; d. real conditional; e. instant decision) Then, put the verbs in brackets into their correct FUTURE TENSE.
1. _____ Let’s organize this weekend. I (call) ________________________ the Sports Hall and we (play) _______________________ on Saturday.
2. _____ "It's so hot in here!" "I (open) ____________________ the window."
3. _____ My parents (buy) _____________________ me a bicycle if I pass all the subjects in June.
4. _____ Look at my agenda. We (do) _____________________ an English exam next week.
5. _____ In the future, Marco (become) ______________________ a professional football player.
6. _____ "Someone's knocking on the door" "Don't move! I (go) ____________ and see who it is."
7. _____ If we finish in time, we (have) _______________________ a picnic afterwards.
8. _____ We’ve taken a decision. This afternoon we (prepare) __________________ ____________ everything to do the video sketch in English for Albert.
9. _____ Real Madrid (play) ________________________ against Liverpool in the Champions League Final.
10. ______ Johnny: "I'm so hungry! I haven't eaten since breakfast." Mum: "I (make) ____________________ a ham and cheese sandwich in a minute."
11. _____ One day students (fly) ________________________ their own helicopter to school instead of walking or taking the bus.
12. _____ We (get) ____________________ our B1 in French in three years’ time if we register at the Official Language School next year.
13. ______ Students in 2º ESO (have) ____________________________ a big night party on St John’s night. They are already collecting some wood.
14. ______ Students: "We can't remember very well the future tenses." Albert: " Don't worry. I (prepare) ________________ an exercise for you and post it in my blog."
15. Albert: "It's hot in here. (you, open) __________________ the window, please?"
Which sentences are polite offers? and which ones are polite requests? Are they instant decisions?
Complete the sentences using the correct FUTURE TENSE form.
I booked our summer holiday last week. We (go) _____________________ to France in July.
I think our team (win) ______________________ tonight. I’m feeling lucky.
I (have) _____________________ an orange juice, please.
I’ve just started a new diet. I (not eat) ______________________ any more chocolate.
It’s 8.30, you (be) __________________ late for school.
I (be) ____________________ 17 on my next birthday!
We (play) ____________________ tennis tomorrow if it doesn't rain.
In our trip around Scandinavia we (visit) __________________
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