Lesson 1: Cold War

The Sixties

American involvement in the Vietnam War had its origins in the postwar period of decolonization and the Cold War context. The United States feared the expansion of communist influence, particularly after the communist takeover of China in 1949, and adhered to the Domino Theory, which posited that if one country fell to communism, neighboring states would follow.

Initially, the U.S. financially supported France's efforts to maintain control over its colonies in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos against the nationalist Viet Minh forces led by Ho Chi Minh. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The subsequent Geneva Peace Conference temporarily divided Vietnam into North and South with the understanding that UN-monitored elections would occur. However, the United States, fearing a communist victory, blocked these elections, and the temporary partition became permanent. The U.S. established the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and supported Ngo Dinh Diem as prime minister, who was a committed anticommunist.

Diem's government and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) struggled to contain the communist insurgency seeking the reunification of Vietnam, known as the Vietcong (VC). The Americans provided weapons and support, and by the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy had deployed approximately sixteen thousand military advisors to aid South Vietnam.

The conflict escalated significantly in 1964 following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which the USS Maddox reported incoming fire from North Vietnamese ships. The Johnson administration used this event to secure the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution from Congress, granting President Johnson the authority to deploy the American military to defend South Vietnam. In March 1965, U.S. Marines landed in Vietnam, marking the beginning of the American ground war.

American forces under General William Westmoreland aimed to defend South Vietnam against the VC and the regular North Vietnamese Army (NVA). However, it proved to be a different kind of war, with progress measured by body counts and kill ratios rather than territory gained. Despite a large number of American troops (reaching half a million by 1968) and heavy bombing, the U.S. could not secure a victory.

"The Unraveling"

The Vietnam War became the "living room war" due to unprecedented media coverage that brought the conflict's brutality into American homes. Images of casualties and atrocities, such as the burning of the South Vietnamese village of Cam Ne by U.S. Marines, contributed to a growing "credibility gap" between official government claims of progress and the reality on the ground. The 1968 Tet Offensive, a major communist offensive across South Vietnam, further exposed this gap, demonstrating the enemy's continued strength. Revelations like the My Lai massacre in 1969 further eroded public trust.

Growing unpopularity of the war led President Johnson to announce in March 1968 that he would not seek reelection. Republican challenger Richard Nixon capitalized on public desire for "law and order" and a plan to end the war, promising a gradual withdrawal of American troops through a policy called "Vietnamization". Despite assurances of withdrawal, Nixon also escalated the conflict by secretly bombing communist supply lines in Laos and Cambodia. News of these actions renewed antiwar demonstrations, including protests at Kent State University and Jackson State University where students were killed by police and National Guard troops.

The Paris Peace Accords were signed in January 1973, officially ending U.S. force commitment to the war. However, peace was short-lived, and by 1975, North Vietnamese troops overwhelmed the South Vietnamese forces, leading to a unified Vietnam under a communist government.

The Vietnam War had a profound impact on domestic politics, poisoning many Americans' perceptions of their government and its role in the world. While the antiwar movement gained significant attention, many Americans continued to support the war, wary of the social changes of the 1960s and concerned that protests threatened civil order. This period also saw a growing number of Americans turning towards conservatism. The immense cost of the Vietnam War also contributed to growing trade deficits and a weakening of the U.S.'s global economic position.