Style and Technique
Accent
'Accent' refers to the pronunciation of a language. The word accent is often confused with dialect, which refers to more than a variation of pronunciation. Dialect refers to a unique variety of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In fact, everyone speaks with an accent. Some accents, however, like British or American English, are standardized forms of the languague.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of sound at the beginning of several words. For example, 'strive, strife and style' all begin with the 'st' sound. This cartoon also shows an example of alliteration where the 'a' sound is repeated in every word. Depending on the sound that is repeated, the use of alliteration can have different effects on an audience. Generally speaking, however, alliteration is used to express the lyrical qualities of language.
Allusion
An allusion is a form of figurative language in which reference is made to text, event, person or place. By alluding to one of these, the writer relies on the reader's contextual knowledge and makes an implicit comparison between what is presented and what is known. Allusion is a device found in all kinds of texts from ads to novels. Here are some examples of allusion:- 'That store is like the forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden.' (Biblical reference, see image)
Analogy
Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring traits from one thing or idea to another. In propaganda we often see false analogies used as a tool to persuade an audience, where the target is unjustly compared to another source, such as: '9/11 is our generation's Pearl Harbor.'Antithesis
A contrast between ideas (the thesis and antithesis) by placing them together for (often rhetorical or literary) effect.Cacophany
Cacophony is discordant, rugged or hard-sounded effects in prose or verse, usually produced by clusters of consonants arranged so as to make pronunciation difficult. Cacophony is frequent in comical verse and tongue-twisters.Caesura
From Latin for 'cutting', caesura is a pause within a line of verse, established by the natural organisation of language into phrases, clauses, and sentences, which do not conform to the metrical pattern.All materials on this website are for the exclusive use of teachers and students at subsCliche
A cliche is a boring phrase, made tedious by frequent repetition. Cliches often attempt to be clever or sound fine, but are undermined by constant use.Coherence
Describes the systematic connection of ideas in a written piece. Coherence is achieved through the use of linking words and the integration of illustrations. Coherence is what helps an idea become developed in an essay. In a coherent paragraph, one tends to state, illustrate and analyze or explain, usually in that order. You will notice that the word coherence often appears under the criteria that deal with 'organization' in almost all forms of assessment in this course. Because coherent writing is a skill that can be developed, it is advised to engage in writing activities regularly. Here is an example of an incoherent paragraph that has been made coherent. Notice how the second paragraph improves on the first.Colloquialism
Colloquialism can be regarded as a kind of expression or grammar that is associated with ordinary, everyday speech rather than formal language. Colloquialism may simply be an intended relaxed way of speaking or writing. A challenge faced by English teachers is to help students develop a sense of what may be regarded as colloquial language in contrast to formal language, and to understand the contexts in which each may be considered appropriate.Connotation
A word's connotation is the aura of emotion that is associated with the word through personal experience. It is the opposite of 'denotation', which is what a word literally stands for.For example, the word 'home' may denote a building with a roof and a door. The connotation of 'home' may mean something different for everyone. It may mean a warm fire, a large family and a Christmas tree. It may mean a bachelor pad in a big city. It may stand for a dream or remind one of poverty. All of these are different connotations of the word 'home'.Crowdsourcing
In a 2006 Wired Magazine article, Jeffo Howe defined 'crowdsourcing' the act of taking a job traditionally performed by a designated employee and outsourcing it to an undefined, generally large group of people in the form of an open call."The best way to understand crowdsourcing is to imagine the following experiment. You have a vase full of marbles and you want to find out how many are in there without taking them out and counting them one by one. Therefore you ask a lot of people. Of all the guesses that you receive, you start to notice a cluster of guesses around the right answer. The content of many webpages is affected by the medium in which they are published. If there are multiple, anonymous authors, such as we see on Wikipedia, we see a product that is generic. The principle of 'crowdsourcing' has led to this result. Hypertext literature, where multiple authors write different endings to works of fiction online, could only be possible with hyperlinks. In brief, "the medium is the message" as Marshal McLuhan once said.Deictic
Words that point in various directions, within a text and beyond it. For example, ‘down there’, ‘this’, ‘that’ etc. Deictic expressions may also point in time, as in ‘now’, ‘then’, and ‘next year’.Denotation
This is the literal, factual meaning of a word. Often it is the meaning or the initial meaning given in a dictionary. Compare with connotation.
Denoument
From the French for 'unknotting', denouement refers to the final unfolding of plot in a literary work. It is at this point that the reader's expectations of what will happen to literary characters are either satisfied or denied.Diatribe
A diatribe is a severely critical type of discourse, often spoken, characterised by anger directed towards something or someone.Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony is a frequent feature of dramatic texts. In plays, it occurs when the development of the plot allows the audience to possess more information about what is taking place than some of the characters themselves have.
Enjambment
From the French, to stride, the term enjambement is used to describe a line of poetry that is not end-stopped. That is, the sentence continues into the next line without pause or punctuation.
Eponymous
The word eponymous was originally used to denote persons whose names were reputed to have been used to form a place-name. For example, Brutus was considered to have been the founder of Britain. Students of literature may wish to refer to an 'eponymous novel' (or other text type) they are reading, such as Madame Bovary.
Equivocation
- Equivocation is when a word is used in two different senses in an argument. Take for example the following syllogism:A hamburger is better than nothingNothing is better than good healthTherefore a hamburger is better than good healthThe word 'nothing' has two meanings. In the first line it means the absence of something. In the second line it refers to a range of things, as in: 'of all the good things in life, nothing is better than good health.' This accounts for why the conclusion sounds so strange. This linguistic device can be used to manipulate people, by making false arguments sound convincing.
Ethos
In Greek the term 'ethos' means 'character'. It can be used to describe the character of an audience, nation or community. For example, one can speak of the 'American ethos' as the characteristics that define American culture. A US presidential candidate would have to speak to the ethos of this nation and culture in order to win votes.Understanding ethos is important to understanding speech writing. As we study the rhetorical devices of speakers, we want to ask ourselves how the speaker appeals to the ethos of his or her audience. Texts often contain a sense of ethos in order to give the speaker more credit or authority on a matter.In a sense, ethos answers the question: "What gives you a mandate to speak to me?"Euphemism
'Euphemism' is a word or phrase that makes something sound better than it actually is. Euphemisms can be found in political speeches, advertising campaigns or everyday conversation.For example, instead of saying someone 'died', we say they 'passed away'. Euphemisms are related to censorship, in the sense that they only tell half-truths and distort reality.Formalism
Formalism is a school of literary criticism that looks at texts at face value, without biographical, historical or contextual considerations. At the heart of formalism is this notion that a text can have inherent meaning. This meaning is constructed through the use of language, i.e. stylistic or structural features. According to the school of formalism, it is up to the reader to deconstruct or unpack the meaning of texts by identifying the use of these features. There are two branches of formalism: the Russian formalists and the New Critics.Generalization
As we study argumentation and propaganda techniques, we come across hasty generalizations. Generalization occurs when large conclusions are drawn from a few instances. It is the weakness of inductive reasoning. For example if premise A reads, 'our school's bandwidth is slow,' and premise B reads, 'we don't have anything sweet in the vending machines,' then the conclusion, 'our school sucks,' would be a generalization.Genre
Genre is a term used to refer to a kind or type of literature. The three major genres of literature are normally claimed to be poetry, drama and the novel (i.e. prose). These genres may be subdivided into, for example, tragedy, comedy, short story, autobiography etc.Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a figure of speech; emphasis through exaggeration. Hyperbole may be used rhetorically and is commonplace in everyday language (e.g. there were millions of students at the disco).Idiolect
Idiolect refers to the way in which we all speak an individual and unique variety of a language. Some may be so bold as to say that there are as many Englishes as there are English speakers. While this may be an exaggeration, it illustrates the idea that pronunciation, idiom (word choice) and syntax are all expressions of a unique identity. Because everyone's identity is influenced by a range of unique, cultural and contextual factors, people end up speaking unique varieties of English.
Imagery
Imagery is a stylistic device, which uses language to appeal to the reader's senses of sight, sound, smell, taste or touch. It is sometimes used as a form of analogy, comparing an abstract idea to a concrete experience. Its aim is to paint a picture in the mind of the reader and bring a text 'to life'. This engages the reader further and makes him/her want to read on.
Intertextuality
The ways in which a text resonates or refers to another text. Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's meaning by another text. It is the interconnection between similar or related works of literature that reflect and influence an audience's interpretation of the text. Intertextuality is the relation between texts that are inflicted by means of quotations and allusion.
Irony
Irony is a literary or stylistic device in which one states something that is in discordance with what is expected. In brief, irony is when someone says one thing but means something else. An understanding of irony depends entirely on an understanding of context. If it is raining and you say, 'nice weather we're having, don't you think?' then there is evidence of irony. Without the context, i.e. rain, the meaning is different.There are several forms of irony. The example above is a form of verbal irony. Furthermore it takes the form of a question, which is not meant to be answered. Rhetorical questions such as these also fall under the category of verbal irony, just like sarcasm, hyperbole, understatement or double entendre.Another form of irony is situational irony. Situational irony occurs when the opposite happens from what one would expect.Jargon
Jargon is the special technical language of any trade, profession, branch, or scholarship. Jargon may sometimes be used, like euphemism, for the purpose of obfuscation.
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is the placement of two (often) opposite ideas in close proximity. These opposite ideas can be expressed through words or images, such as the one presented here, where an old man in the foreground juxtaposes the image of young woman in the background. Juxtaposition is an important concept for analyzing all texts, both literary and non-literary. When an author includes such opposites in a text, he or she is drawing our attention to an inherent tension or conflict.
Kairos
is an Ancient Greek word meaning the right, critical, or opportune moment. The ancient Greeks had two words for time: chronos (χρόνος) and kairos. The former refers to chronological or sequential time, while the latter signifies a proper or opportune time for action.
Logos
For our purposes, 'logos' is the appeal to a reader or listener's sense of logic. 'How do your arguments convince me to take action?' This is the kind of question that an audience asks when listening to a speech or reading a text. This definition comes from the tradition of analyzing rhetoric, as founded by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In this tradition, logos is one of three main rhetorical appeals, together with pathos and ethos, which are appeals to the sense of emotion and authority respectively. Appealing to a sense of logic usually involves arguments, syllogisms, and reasoning. This means that a persuasive speaker will present several premises before coming to a conclusion.Mash-Ups
Mash ups are online texts, usually short films, that copy content from an original source and alter it to some extent to give it new meaning. These are texts that borrow from and build on other texts. They intend to make their audience laugh, as they compare one concept to another through allusion or analogy. They rely on contextual knowledge and a mutual understanding of the original text. Furthermore, they are often the result of copyright infringement.
Metaphor
Metaphor is the comparison of two concepts through language, often done by using the verb 'to be'. Metaphor is often seen as a literary device used by poets. Metaphors, however, can be found in every day speech and images.Metaphor should not be confused with simile which is also a linguistic device that compares two things. Simile, however, uses words such as 'like' or 'as' in order to compare two concepts.
Metonymy
Metonymy is the act of referring to a concept not by its name, but by something intimately associated with it. For example when journalists refer to "Washington's response," they mean the political response of the United States. Similarly we see in this example "Palace fury at D-day snub to Queen." Naturally the palace itself is not furious, but it is a symbol that represents the royal family.Metonymy is closely related to, but should not be confused with synecdoche, which is where one part of something is used to refer to the whole thing.Modality
Modality is the linguistics of judgment. It is the the way in which writers express attitudes towards their subject matter. and towards their addresses. Modality has a range of functions in language, including but not limited to, the truth, likelihood, desirability, and permission. Often, authority is expressed through modality; for this reason, not least, it is an extremely important concept for students to understand.
Multivocal
Multivocal literally means 'many-voiced'. The term can be usefully employed when discussing the nature of texts and their meanings. Multivocality suggests that meaning is not fixed 'in' a text in any kind of immutable, unified way. Instead, meaning is constructed by readers who occupy particular positions, who are informed ideologically, and who exist in particular historical and cultural contexts. Consequently, the meaning of a text may be contested.
Newsworthiness
What makes a story newsworthy? Every editor-in-chief has a different opinion on this matter. Generally speaking however, there seem to be three reasons why a story is deemed 'newsworthy'. Although they do not all pertain to all stories, at least one aspect usually pertains to every story.Negative - 'If it bleeds, it leads', as the saying goes in the media world. Stories about disasters, disease and disappointment tend to sell well.Relevance - If people are affected by events then they are more likely to read about them. A passenger plane crashing in Bolivia in not reported on in the UK, unless British citizens are on board.Extraordinary - If something remarkable or extraordinary happens in any part of the world, it usually warrants coverage. 'Dog Bites Man' is not extraordinary, whereas 'Man Bites Dog' is.
Onomatopoeia
a stylistc device that refers to words that sound like what they represent. 'Swish' or 'snap' are good examples of onomatopoeia. The very sound of these words imitates the actions that they represent.Paralanguage
Aspects of communication functioning in conjunction with verbal language. For example, facial expression and body posture.
Pathetic Fallacy
Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate objects of nature; for example, referring to weather features reflecting a mood.
Pathos
When speakers appeal to one's sense of emotion, they are using pathos. 'Why should I care about what you have to say?' This is the kind of question on an audience's mind when listening to a speech or reading a persuasive text. You can find the same semantic root of pathos in similar, related words such as 'sympathy' or 'pathetic'. Rhetorical questions, emotive language and sensationalism appeal to our sense of pathos. Pathos is one of three rhetorical appeals, traditionally studied in speech writing. This tradition, founded by Aristotle, also includes ethos and logos, as appeals to one's sense of authority and logic respectfully.Personification
Personification is a stylistic device where inanimate objects are given human qualities. It is a form of analogy, where one thing is compared to another thing (or person). This allows the reader to think differently about the characteristics or traits of the object or person.
Phonological
Relates to the sound system of a language. A phoneme is a single unit of sound. Phonological substitution, replacing an anticipated sound with an unanticipated sound is commonplace in media texts such as advertisements and tabloid journalism. An example of phonological substitution can be found in the less that inspired joke: Q. ‘What newspaper does a cat read?’ A. ‘The Mews of the World’. Notice that phonological substitution draws on preexisting contextual awareness if it is to make sense.
Pun
A play on words, often comic, resulting from a word having more than one meaning, or two words with the different meanings having the same sound.Sensationalism
Sensationalism refers to language that appeals to emotions. It exaggerates, over-hypes and attracts attention to controversy.
Simile
the comparison of two things, using the words 'like' or 'as'. It is similar to, but different from, metaphor which compares two things without the use of such words such as 'like' or 'as'.A famous example is found in the movie Forest Gump: "Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you're going to get."
Stereotyping
Assigning fixed characteristics to individuals on the basis of their group membership (e.g. ethnicity, nationality, gender etc.).Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a stylistic device. It is the act of referring to an entity by one of its parts. For example, if you refer to your car as your 'wheels', you are using synecdoche. 'All hands on deck!' is another example. Syndecdoche is closely related to but different from metonymy, where a concept is referred to by something closely associated.
Testimonial
If someone tells you about a personal experience with a product, then you are likely to believe that person. If that 'someone' is a celebrity, you may be even more likely to buy a product that he or she is promoting. This kind of story about a personal experience is known as a 'testimonial'. Testimonials are used in advertising and political campaigns to appeal to the audience's sense of ethos, i.e. that which gives someone credit or a mandate.Textuality
When we refer to 'textuality' we mean the characteristics that define a text. What makes a speech a speech? What makes a blog a blog? What are the inherent structures that define a text? This is what we are interested in when studying textuality. The term relates to all parts of the course. In Part 1, for example, we discuss a great varieties of texts. In Part 2 we discuss how the medium affects the message. In the literary parts of the course we look at the textuality of literary texts by studying genre.Semantic
Semantics means the meaning and interpretation of words, signs, and sentence structure. Semantics largely determine our reading comprehension, how we understand others, and even what decisions we make as a result of our interpretations. Semantics can also refer to the branch of study within linguistics that deals with language and how we understand meaning. This has been a particularly interesting field for philosophers as they debate the essence of meaning, how we build meaning, how we share meaning with others, and how meaning changes over time.