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Biology Comprehensive Outline
Note: Due to recent curriculum changes, the order of this content may not reflect the order we complete in class.
Although sections of this material may change, overall it will remain the same. Thank you!
1. Water: Important Inorganic (no carbon) molecule
o Polarity – most properties of water are the result of its polarity. Polar means that water has a charge. Water has both positive and negative charges.
o Universal Solvent – Water is able to dissolve substances that are polar, such as sodium and chloride (salt). Water cannot dissolve non polar substances. Oil and fats are non polar and are not attracted to water.
o Density – water becomes denser as it cools, it is most dense at 40C, at temperatures less than 40C something unique happens, it becomes less dense. Water is least dense at 0 degrees C (freezing), which is why water expands when freezing and ice floats.
o pH – The ph scale is a measure of acid and base. The ph scale is 1-14. A pH of 7 is neutral, pH numbers below 7 are acid and pH numbers above 7 are bases.
2. Macro (large) Molecules.
Organic macromolecules are large, they contain carbon, they are found in all living things. There are 4 classes of macromolecules:
o Carbohydrates – CHO, Glucose is a simple carbohydrate (monosaccharide) whose function is quick energy. Starch is a complex sugar (Polysaccharide) made of many monosaccharides whose function is energy storage. Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants.
MADE UP OF MONOSACHARIDES
o Lipids – CHO, non polar, made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, functions: stored energy, Phospholipids makes up the lipid bilayer of cell membranes, fats may used as insulation (reduce heat loss) and protection (cushion). MADE UP OF glycerol and fatty acids
o Proteins – CHON, made of amino acids, functions: control body chemistry (hormones), structure (muscles, cartilage), and speed chemical reactions (enzymes)
MADE UP OF AMINO ACIDS
Enzymes are specialized proteins that are known as catalyst because they speed up chemical reactions in the body. Each enzyme is specific to a substrate, pH, and temperature. All enzymes have specific pH levels and temperatures where they perform at their optimal (best). At pH levels and temperatures below or above the optimum they don’t work as well. When enzymes change their shape (denature) they are less effective.
o Nucleic Acids – CHONP, DNA is made of nucleotides with nitrogen bases (ATCG), RNA has bases (AUCG), function: Genes are made of DNA, Both DNA and RNA carry genetic code for making proteins.
3. Vitamins: Promote good health
o Vitamin C – Wound healing
o Vitamin D – Build strong bones and teeth
o Vitamin K – Blood clotting
4. Diffusion: Particles move from High to low Concentration: Drop of dye in water – spreads out to color water
o Random movement of all particles from high to low concentration.
o Molecules will move until they are equally distributed (equilibrium)
o Temperature affects the rate of diffusion (warm/fast, cold/slower)
5. Osmosis:
o Movement of water from high to low concentration through selectively permeable membranes (semipermeable membrane)
o Substances that dissolve in water lower the concentration of water.
o Salt water, sugar water etc. have a lower concentration of water.
o Living things try to maintain a balance with their environment. This is called Homeostasis. If the environment has a higher concentration of water than a cell then the cell will gain water. If an environment has a lower concentration of water than a cell the cell will lose water.
o Any salt water concentration has less water than freshwater.
Example: Fresh water cells (like euglena, paramecium) placed in salt water will lose water and shrink. The opposite causes cells to swell.
o Osmosis will continue until equilibrium is reacted.
6. Prokaryotic Cells:
o No nucleus or organelles, primitive, circular unprotected DNA.
o Example: bacteria, single celled, microscopic
7. Eukaryotic Cells: “You” have eukaryotic cells!
o Have a nucleus and organelles, can be multi-cellular, protected DNA, all larger organisms are eukaryotic.
o Example: Animals, plants, fungus, protozoans
8. Cell Organelles carry out KEY LIFE PROCESSES:
cell membrane – phospholipid bilayer, all materials enter and exit the cell through the cell membrane (controls transport)
non polar bilayer is a barrier
transport proteins help molecules across membrane
active transport requires energy (ATP)
passive transport does not require energy (ATP)
chloroplast – plants only, where photosynthesis occurs, uses carbon dioxide and water to make glucose and release oxygen.
mitochondria – all eukaryotic cells have them, release energy stored in food molecules. Produce ATP to carry energy. Process is called cellular respiration. Releases carbon dioxide, water and heat as a waste.
ribosomes – where proteins are made
nucleus – found only in eukaryotic cells, control center of cells, DNA is in the nucleus.
Cilia are short hairs that are used for movement in some cells (paramecium)
Flagella are long hairs that are used for movement in some cells (euglena)
Contractile vacuoles collect and pump excess water out and prevent fresh water cells from bursting. Control osmosis.
Cell walls (PLANTS ONLY) are not organelles but they are important because they help the plant stand up and protect the cell.
9. Photosynthesis:
o Plants use chloroplasts in this process, uses CO2 and water, with energy from the sun, to make glucose and release oxygen:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2,
six carbon dioxide + six water molecules yields sugar (glucose) and 6 molecules of oxygen
o Reactants = carbon dioxide and Water (ingredients) ; Products = Glucose and oxygen (stuff you get)
o Chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs red and blue light and reflect green light
o The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by the amount of oxygen being given off as waste and can be influenced by the intensity of light, the color of light, and temperature.
10. Chemosynthesis:
o The process of making ATP from chemicals.
o Bacteria that live around hydrothermal vents found deep in the ocean where no light is to be found use this process for survival.
11. Cellular respiration:
o All cells use cellular respiration to release energy and produce ATP from glucose. ATP is a molecule that carries energy for cell work.
o Cells with mitochondria use oxygen (aerobic respiration) and release more energy and produce more ATP.
o Cells that do not use oxygen (anaerobic respiration) release less energy and produce less ATP.
o Respiration is controlled by enzymes. The equation for respiration is the reverse of the equation for photosynthesis.
o C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----------> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy)
o Reactants = glucose and Oxygen; Products = Carbon Dioxide, water, ATP and heat
o Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis need each other. The products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) and used by respiration. The products of respiration (CO2 and H2O) are used by photosynthesis
12. Animal and Plant Systems that carry out KEY LIFE PROCESSES:
Skeletal / Muscular – includes muscle and bone. Provides structure, support, movement, and protection.
Nervous – includes brain, nerves and spinal cord. Controls body systems and reacts to stimuli (Smell, taste, hear, sight, touch). Helps maintain homeostasis.
Endocrine – Glands like the pancreas. Secretes hormones which act as chemical messages. Hormones help control cell activity. Glands respond to stimuli to maintain homeostasis via feed-back loops.
Excretory – removes metabolic waste from blood. Includes kidneys (urine), skin or integumentary system (sweat, salt) and lungs or respiratory system (carbon dioxide). Important in maintaining balance (homeostasis) between the substances carried by the blood and the substances found in cells.
Circulatory – includes heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. Transports (Carries) all nutrients and oxygen and water to cells, carries all waste products and carbon dioxide away from the cells. Carries waste to the organs that help excrete and maintain homeostasis.
Transpiration: circulation in plants. Vessels in plants (xylem) that transport water in the plant. Water enters roots by osmosis and is pulled to the leaves (up the xylem vessels) where it is used by photosynthesis. Plants have a different set of vessels that carry food.
13. DNA
o The blueprint for the cell. A set of directions responsible for life.
o DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
o Made of nucleotides with bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, or A, T, C, G. “Complementary base pairs” are A – T and C - G.
o Structure is a double helix with nucleotide bases (ACTG) held by a sugar-phosphate backbone. The sugar is in DNA is deoxyribose.
o The DNA in cells replicates (copies) itself during asexual reproduction and each cell receives a copy.
o Genes are made of DNA. Genes code for proteins.
o DNA base pair order creates code words for making proteins
o DNA is used as a guide for making RNA
14. RNA:
o RNA = Ribonucleic acid. The nucleotides of RNA use ribose sugar in place of deoxyribose. The nucleotide bases of RNA are adenine, uracil, cytosine and guanine (AUCG). No thymine (T) in RNA. A pairs with U
o RNA is made using DNA as a guide in a process called transcription.
o RNA is a single helix with sugar-phosphate backbone.
o Three different types of RNA
mRNA (messenger RNA) the mRNA carries a message from the DNA in the nucleus out to the ribosomes found in the cytoplasm.
tRNA (transfer RNA) carries specific amino acids to the ribosomes and mRNA during a process called translation.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is used to make the ribosomes. Ribosomes work with tRNA to translate the coded message of mRNA.
15. Protein Synthesis:
*Involves DNA and RNA
*DNA code is used to make (transcribe)
the 3 types of RNA. The mRNA and tRNA
leave the nucleus and enter the cytoplasm.
(Note: DNA never leaves the nucleus).
The mRNA is coded (transcribed) in three
nucleotide sets called codons (AUG, CUU, GGA, etc.).
Codons are code words for amino acids.
Ribosomes are attracted to the mRNA after it leaves
the nucleus. Upon entering the cytoplasm tRNA is
attached to specific Amino Acids. Amino Acids are the
building blocks of proteins. Each tRNA has a three
nucleotide set called an anticodon which is complementary to
the mRNA codon.
o EXAMPLE: DNA code- TAC CCC GTA TCG GGT
o mRNA codons - AUG GGG CAU AGC CCA
tRNA anticodons - UAC CCC GUA UCG GGU
o Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid to the mRNA at the ribosome. The ribosome links the Amino Acids together to build a specific protein.
o Proteins always start building with the codon AUG and stop when they reach a STOP codon. Each protein has a specific shape and function that is determined by the arrangement (order) of its amino acids (enzymes, muscle fibers, cartilage. Antibodies, hormones, hemoglobin, etc. are examples of different proteins)
16. Mitosis: In your “toesies” and everywhere else (non reproductive)
o When cells asexually reproduce they must copy their chromosomes (DNA) and then divide them into two sets.
o When a cell divides each new cell receives an exact copy of chromosomes.
o Cell division is needed for repair, replacement and growth
o Results in two identical daughter cells from one parent cell. The chromosome number in the new cells is identical to parent cell.
o 2n 4n 2n + 2n is equation for mitosis (n = # of unique chromosomes). If Parent cell is 2n then each daughter cell must be 2n
o The goal of mitosis is to limit variation, you want identical copies! If mistakes get made, the wrong type of cell can start growing in the wrong place (Cancer is an example of this!!)
17. Meiosis: in the testes or ovaries!
o Meiosis is a type of cell division for sexual reproduction only.
o Meiosis forms sex cells called gametes (egg and sperm)
o Meiosis undergoes two cell divisions resulting in 4 new gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. If a body cell is 2n (diploid) then gametes are n (haploid).
o 2n 4n n + n + n + n is the equation for meiosis.
o Crossover occurs in meiosis. Crossover is when homologous chromosomes break and exchange pieces. This provides for genetic variation when the chromosomes you got from your dad crossover with the chromosomes you got from your mom. The sex cells you make will have chromosomes that are a blend of your mom and dad.
o Fertilization occurs when sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote. Sperm fusing with eggs from different families cause variation.
o Goal of meiosis is to increase variation. Variation favors survival.
18. Reproduction:
o Asexual – one parent, quicker – uses less energy, limits genetic variation, exact copy of parent, produce larger number of offspring. Examples of types of asexual reproduction are: Budding – an identical copy of the parent forms and is attached, but breaks off when adult form is reached. Hydra reproduces using this type of reproduction. Binary fission – a cell divides into two new identical cells. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Mitosis is asexual reproduction and produces body cells of animals and plants. Vegetative propagation is when cutting are taken from plants and planted.
o Sexual – two parents, slower, increases genetic variation as a result of fertilization using sex cells from different families. Variation also occurs when sex cells are formed during meiosis (crossover).
o Flowers – are the sexual. Flowers are sex organs that produce gametes. Pollination leads to fertilization and the production of a seed.
19. Genetics:
o Chromosomes carry genes which control traits. Traits of offspring such as hair color, eye color, height, sex (male XY or female XX) etc. are determined by which chromosomes and genes are inherited from a parent
o Genes are in pairs because chromosomes are in pairs. Each gene in a pair is called an Allele. Offspring get an allele for each trait from each parent. Alleles may differ in strength. Dominant genes will show over recessive genes and will determine how something appears.
o Genotype of a trait tells us the type of alleles present for the trait.
Homozygous (same) dominant – HH, TT, NN, EE
Homozygous recessive – hh, tt, nn, ee
Heterozygous (different) – Hh, Tt, Nn, Ee
o Phenotype is the physical trait that we see. It describes how the geneotype will be expressed (its look) Example: Brown hair, blue eyes, tall, short, etc.
o Punnett Squares can be used to determine the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring produced during reproduction.
T t
T
t
o Monohybrid cross: Genotypes? Phenotypes?
o Sex-linked traits are found on the X chromosome. They are passed down from the mom to the son. They are found mostly in males because they have only one X chromosome.
Some examples of sex-linked traits are: hemophilia and colorblindness
Females
o Pedigrees – Charts used to show how a trait is passed down in a family.
o Mutations occur when there is a change in the DNA sequence resulting in genes that have different phenotypes than expected. Mutations can be caused by environmental factors, such as radiation – UV (from the sun) and X-ray, caffeine, carbon tetrachloride, and saccharin. Can cause cancer.
o Mutations that occur to genes or chromosomes during meiosis be passed from the parent to the offspring (sex cells carry the mutations).
20. Biotechnology
o Genetic engineering - Manipulating genes for practical purposes.
o Recombinant DNA – DNA made by combining DNA from two or more organisms.
o Gene splicing – Uses restriction enzymes to cut a gene from the DNA of one organism and move it to a location in the DNA of a different organism. Creates organisms with genes and traits that they do not normally have. Ex: A bacterium that can produce human insulin.
o Cloning – Making an exact copy of a cell or organism
o Beneficial Uses of genetic engineering:
• Study and compare DNA from different organisms
• Determine the degree of relatedness of different organisms
• Create or improve medicines and vaccines,
• Improve nutritional value of food, increase amount of food produced,
• Create resistance to the following: disease, frost, illness, bacteria, insect pests
• Overall purpose is: improvement of quality of life.
• Potential Harmful effects: can reduce genetic variation, could create organisms that negatively alter an ecosystem.
21. Evolution:
o A slow change that occurs in a population over a long period of time
o Natural selection (Survival of the Fittest)-The environment favors a trait that permits the organism to be more successful. Successful organisms survive, reproduce more and increase the number of the successful genes (trait) in the population.
o Environmental pressures (factors that select) are: predators, disease, food, shelter, climate, pollution, natural disasters, such as hurricanes, droughts, tornadoes, flooding, etc.
o Variations – Different traits seen in the individuals of a population. Ex: Fur Color, size, speed, intelligence, immune systems etc.
o Adaptation (Survival Characteristic) A variation that an organism is born with that allows it to survive within its particular environment. Examples are: White fur of a Polar Bear, Fins in fish, and Tails on Monkeys etc.
o Evidence of evolution:
Homologous structures – Anatomical similarities: Looking at the similarities in bone structure such as arrangement or number of bones. Body shape and structures like teeth, organs
Fossils – Looking at bone structure or imprints from ancient organisms may tell about ancestors and past lives.
Embryonic development – Looking at the early stages of embryos to see structures appear early in life (gills slits, limb buds, nerve cords and tails). As the embryo grows into an adult form of the organism it is meant to be, those similarities begin to disappear and it may be more difficult distinguish relatedness
Biochemical Similarity (DNA and amino acid sequence) – Using gel electrophoresis to compare the DNA organisms. Also looking at the amino acid sequences in organisms to see how many similarities or differences there are between proteins. Remember that similar DNA or similar proteins mean similar genes. Organisms that like genes are related. How close are they?
o Classification – Uses observation of homologous characteristics to helps scientists to recognize relationships among organisms. Permits grouping, naming and organizing information about past and present life forms.
22. Ecology: Study of Interactions between the environment and living things.
o Environment: Surroundings, both abiotic and biotic
o Abiotic factors – Non-living characteristics of the environment. Examples: soil, rocks, temperature (hot and cold), light, day length, air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, humidity, wind,
o Biotic factors – All things living. Examples: plants, animals, microorganisms, fungi, man etc.
o Abiotic Cycles:
Water cycle – Movement of water within the environment. Water is moved through the environment through evaporation from lakes and other bodies of water. Precipitation returns water to environment through rain or snow, etc.. Runoff transfers water from mountains into lower streams, lakes and finally the oceans. Transpiration moves water in the soil through plants to leaves where water is lost to the air through the stomata (openings) of leaves. Respiration and excretion returns water taken in by animals to the environment
Carbon Cycle – Movement of carbon between living systems and the environment. Relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration is part of the cycle (see photosynthesis, #9 and Cellular respiration, # 11 from above). Burning fossil fuels returns carbon that was locked away in dead plant and animals (coal/oil) to the air. ORGANIC = Made of carbon INORGANIC = not made of carbon
Nitrogen cycle – Certain bacteria are capable of combining nitrogen in air with hydrogen to form ammonia compounds that are used to make amino acids. Amino acids are used by organisms to make proteins. Nitrogen is returned to the air when organisms and their wastes are decomposed by bacteria and fungi.
o Energy Pyramid – Used to show how energy is passed through the trophic levels.
Producers: Largest level is on the bottom of the pyramid; Autotrophs that make food using sun light (photosynthetic organisms / plants); they all receive energy directly from the sun and so they have the most energy.
Primary consumers: Level above producers; they are herbivores because they only eat plants (producers).
Secondary consumers: Level above primary consumers; they are made up of both carnivores (eat meat) and omnivores (eat both plants and meat).
Tertiary consumers: they are made up of both carnivores and omnivores
All consumers are heterotrophs because the can not make food.
Food chains and webs: Another way of showing energy movement trough an ecosystem.
Aquatic Webs – includes organisms found in the ocean
Terrestrial – includes organisms found on land
Both types of webs show producers and consumers as well as the direction of the flow of energy from organism to organism
A food chain shows only one path of energy from the producer level to top the consumers. Chains have fewer organisms.
Food web shows many paths of energy from the producer level to top the consumers. Webs have numerous organisms.
All energy ultimately comes from the sun!!
Ten percent Rule: Only 10% of the energy from the organisms of one trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level. This is because 90% of the energy they consume is used to perform life processes, such as cellular respiration, and other activities of life
o Ecological Interactions and Relationships: Niche
Scavengers – Organisms that will eat the remains of other organisms. Example: raccoon, vultures, flies, beetles
Decomposers are responsible for helping to break down dead organisms into the molecules it was made of. Decay or rotting. Examples of decomposers are: bacteria and fungi (mold)
Predator – Prey – One organism hunts another organism for the purpose of eating it. Example: The fox hunts and eats the mouse
Symbiosis: A close relationship between two organisms where the life of one requires the life of the other. They cannot live separately. Three types of symbiotes exist.
Symbiosis: Mutualism – Both organisms benefit from the relationship. Example: Lichens are algae and fungus that live together. Fungi provide shelter and moisture, algae provides glucose (food)
Symbiosis: Commensalism – One organism benefits and the other one is neither harmed nor benefited. Example: Barnacles live on whales, whales provide transportation for barnacles, but the whales are not benefited nor are they harmed.
Symbiosis: Parasitism (parasite – host) – One organism benefits and the other is harmed Example: The tape worm in humans, the tapeworm benefits from stealing the nutrients from its human host. The human is harmed by significant weight loss and severe lack of nutrients. Various types of illnesses and disease can result.
Biomass – A measure of amount of organisms found in an environment. All of the “weights” of every organism in the environment added together. Could be used to measure the success or complexity of an ecosystem.
Biodiversity – The variety of organisms living in a given area. Could be used to measure the success or complexity of an ecosystem.
Succession
A sequence of environmental changes over a period of time.
This happens where life has not existed before or where some type of disaster has occurred and wiped out the previous ecosystems.
Stage 1 – Rocks
Stage 2 – Rocks weather to become sand and soil
Stage 3 – Grasses, small plants, and shrubs begin to form and small living organisms begin to appear (Pioneer Species)
Stage 4 – Small trees and larger animals appear
Stage 5 – Large trees and a more densely populated forest has formed (Climax Species)
Biology HSA Study Guide (Skills and Processes)
1. Learning Science begins with making observations.
2. Observation leads us to ask questions.
3. Making an educated prediction (Hypothesis) about the problem
helps us focus our search for answers.
4. Testing our hypothesis (Experimentation) leads greater
understanding.
The science of Problem Solving:
Problem Statement: Clearly state what you are trying to solve. Often problems are cause and effect. When vegetables are placed in salt water (cause) they wrinkle / wilt (effect).
Hypothesis Statement: Make an educated prediction about the answer to your question. The hypothesis will address only the variables presented by your problem or observation. Ex: Vegetables wilt because they lose mass when placed in salt water.
Design an Experiment to test you hypothesis:
o Identify Dependent Variable ( Information you will get by doing the experiment) Ex: Amount of wilting
o Identify Independent Variable ( experimental factors that cause the change you observed) Ex: Different concentrations of salt water
o Control all variables that are not being tested (temperature, light, other types of vegetables, time exposed to salt water)
o List the Materials you will need to complete the experiment.
o Identify safety precautions that you must follow.
o Create a step by step logical sequence explaining exactly what you will do to perform the experiment.
o Procedure is designed to eliminate Bias
Record Results:
o Design a chart or table to organize data
o Qualitative data describes what you monitor with your senses
o Qualitative Data are measurements that describe what is happening
Analysis Results:
o Evaluates qualitative data
o Uses math to interpret qualitative data
o Appropriate graphs are created to illustrate the data
o Dependent variable data is compared to independent variable
Conclusion:
o Complete discussion (about what was learned) that:
Uses data to evaluate the hypothesis
Uses data to evaluate problem
Uses data to reflect on the procedure used
Uses data address unexpected or expected results
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