3.1.「形式合理性」と「実質合理性」

(1) 『法社会学』での「形式合理性」と「実質合理性」

a.「法」の「合理化」

　法の近代化，合理化をヴェーバーは次のように指摘する．「法とは，それ自体の中に論理的な矛盾や欠陥を含まない一つの完結的な「規範」複合体であり，これらの規範を「適用」しさえすればよいという観念が，もっぱら法思考を支配することになった」(Weber,1976:493)．「法秩序」の形式性について「秩序が拘束的に妥当するものと見なされているが故に，この理由からして，純粋に形式的に秩序の順守を実現する…，…合目的性の諸理由やあるいはその他の実質的な諸条件から，秩序の順守を実現するのではない」(Weber,1976:182)とするとき，形式性は，事実の具体的・個別的な意味内容，個々の功利的な目的など，実質的な対象の個別性を捨象する．経済の合理化，市場化の側面では，それは，すべての財やサービスの具体的な価値が貨幣換算・計量化され計算される．この貨幣換算の対象となったモノの個別性と価値は価格に置き換えられ一般化する．

b.「法」の「形式性」

「法が「形式的」であるというのは，実体法上も訴訟上も，もっぱら一義的で一般的な要件メルクマールのみが尊重される」(Weber,1976:396)．そしてこの「形式主義」は「二重の性格」をもつ．1)「外面的メルクマールの形式主義」として「法的に重要なメルクマールが，感覚的に直観的な性格をもったもの」，「外面的なメルクマールを固執すること」である．「例えば一定の言葉が語られたとか，署名がなされているとか，その意味が絶対的に確定している一定の象徴的な行為がなされたか」に固執する(Weber,1976:396-397)など，それらは厳格な法の形式主義を意味する．2)「論理的抽象の形式主義」があり，それは「法的に重要なメルクマールが論理的な意味解明によって明らかにされ，厳格に抽象的な諸規則の形で明確な法概念が形成され，この法概念が適用される」(Weber, 1976:397)．後者の論理的な合理性が貫徹されるとき，形式合理性と実質合理性との不可避的な矛盾関係が成立する(Weber,1976:397)．

c.論理的抽象の形式主義

「論理的抽象の形式主義」について具象化しよう．ファースト・フード店の商品の製造・販売を考慮すれば，その商品が，どのようなマーケット・セグメントをターゲットとして消費者層を特定し，購買目的や意図があるのか，消費者は，どのようなニーズと嗜好があるか，その付加価値は何かの意味解明が行われる．それによって注文を受けてから何分以内に顧客にサービスされる必要があり，調理方法と時間，サイド・メニューは何がふさわしいか，店舗の位置，店内レイアウトは．どのような形態が適合するか，価格設定は，どの範囲かなどの諸規則が定められる．こうしてファースト・フード店の店舗運営の実践は，合理的に定められたワーク・フローの規則の順守によって管理され，マニュアルとして規則が制定，適用される．対処すべき具体的状況から一般的な規則が定められる．

d.「実質合理性」への要請

「実質合理性」(materiale Rationlität)への要請は，「抽象的な意味解明の論理的一般化〔によって得られた規範〕ではなく，それとはちがった性質の権威をもつ規範が，法律問題の決定に対して影響力をもつからである．倫理的な命令や，功利的またはその他の合目的性の規則や，あるいは政治的な格率が影響力を持ち，これらが外面的なメルクマールの形式主義をも，論理的抽象の形式主義をも打破すべき」(Weber,1976:397)と要請される．

　以上の論点も，ファースト・フード店の課業に関し再構成してみよう．商品の生産・販売過程が形式的な規則としてのマニュアルに明記されても，個々のすべての顧客の多様なニーズを充足できない．個別の顧客の特定のニーズを充足する必要，マニュアル通りには対応できない場合，必要に応じ，定められた規則を超えた臨機応変な対応が現場スタッフに求められる．たとえば特定の食品アレルギーや宗教的な戒律のある顧客に，一般のレシピやマニュアルでは対応できない．その状況に応じた適切な対応が要請される．

e.「形式合理性」と「実質合理性」

「形式合理性」は制定された一般的規則が個々のケースに適用され，すべての意思決定と行動が制定された規則と規則に基づく命令に従うこと，「実質合理性」は，個別ケースで，規則の枠を超え，特定の価値や目的を意識的に実現する度合いであり，定められた規則を離れ，超法規的に意思決定者の主体的な洞察と責任が要請される．そのような意思決定は結果への責任が問われる．経済活動に関し，この問題を次節で確認する．

(2) 経済活動の形式合理性と実質合理性

a.計量化と個別性の捨象

　ヴェーバーによれば，「経済行為の形式合理性は，その経済行為にとって技術的に可能でもあり，また現実に経済行為に適用されている計算の度合いのことをさす…．実質合理性というのは，経済的指向をもった社会的行為による一定の人間集団…のそのときどきの財供給が，一定の価値評価の公準〔それがどのような性質のものであれ〕の観点から，そのような公準のもとで観察され行われ，または行われうる度合をさす」(Weber,1976:44)．「一つの経済行為は，すべての合理的な経済に固有な「事前の配慮」が，量的に，つまり「計算可能」な熟慮のかたちで表示され得，実際そのように表示される度合いが高ければ高いほど，形式的に「合理的」と呼ばれる…．この概念は…，少なくとも貨幣という形態が最大の形式的な計算可能性を示す…という意味で一義的である．…これにたいして実質合理性の概念は，まったく多義的である．それは，ただ次の公約数的な意味を表す．技術的に可能な限りの適合的な方法を用いることによって目的合理的に計算されるという事実が純粋に形式的〔ただし相対的に〕・一義的に確定しうるだけでは，必ずしも十分ではない．その他に，倫理的・政治的・功利主義的・快楽主義的・身分的・平等主義的等々，その他，何らかの要求を設定して，経済行為の結果を，それが形式的にどれほど「合理的」，つまり計算可能であるにせよ，それとの関連で，価値合理的ないし実質的に目的合理的な尺度で測定する，ということが必要である」(Weber, 1976:45)．

　貨幣換算によって，個々の商品の個別性は捨象され，貨幣量によって価値が定量化さるのは，形式合理化であり，人材も年収によってその価値が計量化される．一方，どのような人材も，その家族にとって，掛け替えのない存在であり，その人物のいかんが問われ，人間の関係性は実質合理的である．

b.「アキュラホーム」の形式合理化のケース

　業務内容の形式合理化を工務店の具体的ケースで確認してみよう．東京都主催の「東村山市本町地区プロジェクト」では，民間企業の建物価格を約3割引き下げる実験が行われた(https://www.city.higashimurayama.tokyo.jp/ shisei/machi/machidukuri/i-town.html)．都営住宅の建替えで生じた土地に民間活力を導入し，多摩地区の郊外居住モデルとなる街づくりを示し，良質で廉価な住宅供給のため，住宅価格がどこまで下げられるか実証実験が行われた．プロジェクトに参加した「アキュラホーム」（株式会社AQ Group，1978年創業，資本金9,314万円，売上595億円，従業員1,522名：2023年3月現在，https://www.aqura.co.jp/company/history/）は，東京都の建物の平均坪単価約74万円に対し約37万円で建設を可能にした．それは住宅建築の設計と施工を構成する一つ一つの課業，作業の徹底的な計算と合理化から実現された．戸建住宅は正確な価格とその明細が明らかにされない現状がある．

　伝統的な職人の木造建築には不要な作業手順・工程が含まれることがある．現場で建築を請け負う大工と工務店に建設コストの標準的な計算方法がなく，コストを把握できず，全体の設計から不要な厚みのある梁や木板が施工されうる．アキュラホームの木造建築へのコスト計算の導入はF. テイラーの「科学的管理法」(Tylor,1993)と近似する．テイラーは「時間研究」として作業員が実際に各作業に要する時間をストップウオッチで計測し，１日の標準仕事量を設定した．「動作研究」として，作業動作の無理・無駄のない方法を観察し，標準作業が設定される．これらの計測と観察から作業員のすべての課業の標準時間と標準作業が確定され，作業効率が追求される．アキュラホームは，一作業あたりの労賃や材料費を数10円から数100円単位で計算し，不要部分の排除を全作業工程に徹底した．住宅建設の現場を実質的に担ってきた工務店の従来の職人の施工では，一つ一つの作業や材料費は計算されず，工事一式の施工を「まる投げ」で受け，実際に建ててみなければ採算がわからないケースもあった．

　アキュラホームでは，2002年以降，建築に必要なすべての部材の価格表を作成し，外壁材から床材まで2万項目以上のコスト分析を行いデータベース化した．職人の工賃も作業ごとの標準工賃が1分当たり単価を1円単位で計算し，「サッシ取り付け」：3,221円，「押し入れ中段の取り付け」：1,224円，「勝手口ひさし取り付け」：816円など計算される．このデータベースは工務店経営支援システム，「アキュラシステム」として全国の工務店に販売され，全国2600社で採用されている．材費，作業工賃，人件費が計算・予測可能となった．計算に依拠しコスト削減が行われる．例えば，天井まである背の高いドアは，背の低い通常のドアより単価は高いが，実際に材料費と施工の手間費用を計算すると，むしろ単価の高い方が施工を含め安価であった．通常の部屋とクローゼットの中に使用するクロスや底材はクローゼット用を品質を落としコスト削減できると思われたが，実際には品質の良いクロスと床材で統一し，使用したほうが，材料費は高くなるが，資材管理と作業の単純化，作業時間の短縮から，トータルの計算では安価となることがわかった．こうして品質を高め，コスト削減が計算によって明らかにされる(日経産業新聞2014/02/13)．

　戸建住宅を建設する全作業工程，労賃と材料費の計算可能性を貫徹し，合理的な施工方法が可能となる．その建築方法は，計算の度合いが高く，形式的に合理的である．高品質で廉価な価格設定の住宅を実現できればアキュラホームは，本業で，高品質で安価の住宅供給によって社会的問題を解決する．形式合理性は経済的活動で，事前の配慮と熟慮の貨幣による計算可能性の度合いであり，業務は定型化・標準化される．貨幣計算から木造住宅施工の作業工程とコスト計算が可能となる．

c.ソニーの商品開発でのEVA(経済付加価値)の利益管理

具体的ケースをさらに検討しよう．ソニーは，1997年，米国流のコーポレートガバナンスを取り入れ，執行役員制を導入した．これによって商法上の取締役と各事業部門の執行責任者が分離した．株主支配が強化され，取締役を38から米国並みの10に減員した(日経新聞朝刊1997/07/30)．商品開発にEVA(経済付加価値)の利益管理が導入され，生産部門をEMCSとして子会社化し，付加価値を徹底的に計算しコストを下げるシステムが導入された．この結果，ソニーの経済活動の貨幣による計算の度合いは高まり，管理システムは形式合理化される．その反面，イノベーションは計算されない．うまくいくかどうかわからない技術を上司に隠れて温める，それまでのソニーにあった開発現場の習慣は失われ(日経新聞電子版2012/10/05)，商品開発の形式合理化が進められた．実質合理性は，個別的状況や特殊な条件下で，規則の枠を超え，ケース・バイ・ケースでの対応を意味する．「ウォークマン」開発は一人の若手社員の提案だったが，ソニーの全役員と技術専門職は反対した．ゴー・サインを出したのは当時の盛田昭夫会長だけだった．

d. ホンダ技研のエア・バックのゼロからの独自開発

自動車に装備されている「エア・バッグ」が「ホンダ技研」で提案された当初，社長以外は全員が反対した．この開発から実用化まで16年を要している．ホンダでは，技術者たちが独自に技術開発を行うことに誇りをもっている．エア・バックの技術は，すでにメルセデスが開発し，特許を無償公開していたが，ホンダは自社開発を選択した．このシステムが標準装備になる以前，年間1万1,000人以上が交通事故で亡くなっていたが，普及後5,000人を切っている(日経新聞Web刊2012/10/11)．

1971年から1987年の16年の開発期間のうち，最初の10年間は全く成果がなかった．高価な実験車両を何台も衝突させ潰す研究が続いた．莫大な費用をかけ成果がなく，10数人だった開発チームも4人になった．他社撤退との噂も流れ，ホンダでも「まだやっているのか」との声があった．上司から「開発中止命令」が下った．「絶対に完成させる」との条件で「続行」となった．「中止命令」は開発担当者たちの意欲を計るためのようであった．数年が経過したが成果がなく，研究者たちは「会社の資金をムダにしている…」と苦しんだ．研究所のトップは「お前たちが使う金ぐらいで会社がつぶれるか！絶対にあきらめるな」との応酬があった．ホンダの研究開発の長期性には「安全システムに誤動作は許されない」との責務があった．誤動作を「ゼロ」に限りなく近くする安全性の実現要請のハードルを開発部門全体が自分たちに設定した．16年の研究開発期間は，安全性への信頼のために費やされた．1987年，国産初のホンダ独自の運転席用エア・バックシステムの開発に成功し，その後，急速に普及した．運転席から助手席用，さらに1998年，サイド・エア・バックシステムも世界初．ホンダ独自で唯一の装置として開発された．このシステムは，寝てしまった子供の頭部がエア・バックの展開エリアにある場合，作動させず，「膨らませない」制御である(https://global.honda/p/tech/Airbag_system/closeup/)．ホンダの長期的研究開発への動機づけは，職業倫理と人命の安全性の価値理念に関わる実質合理的な要請である．

「ウォークマン」も「エア・バッグ」も，開発から製品化までのプロセスは，予測・計算できない．イノベーションには予測・計算の合理性を超えたプロセスが介在する．コスト計算もイノベーションも，どちらも事業運営の継続性と競争力の源泉の確保に要請される．現在，ホンダは自動運転など，スタート・アップ企業や他企業とのオープン・イノベーションでの技術開発も選択している．これは，後に議論する「スカンク・ワークス」や「アドホクラシー」を接合させる組織戦略である．

(1) "Formal Rationality" and "Substantive Rationality" in Sociology of Law

a. Rationalization of "Law"

Weber points out the modernization and rationalization of law as follows: "Law is a comprehensive 'normative' complex that does not contain logical contradictions or defects within itself, and the idea that it is sufficient to 'apply' these norms has come to exclusively dominate legal thought" (Weber, 1976:493). Regarding the formalism of the "legal order," when it is stated that "due to the belief that the order is validly binding, the compliance with the order is realized purely formally... not by achieving the compliance of the order from various purposive reasons or other substantive conditions" (Weber, 1976:182), formalism disregards the individuality of factual, specific meanings, individual utilitarian purposes, etc. In the rationalization and commodification aspects of the economy, all goods and services are quantified and calculated in terms of monetary value. The individuality and value of the objects subject to monetary conversion are replaced and generalized by prices.

b. "Formalism" of "Law"

The statement that the law is "formal" means that, both substantively and procedurally, only the primary and general requirements are respected (Weber, 1976:396). This "formalism" has a "dual character." 1) There is "external formalism" of the criteria, which involves adhering to "legally significant criteria that have a sensory and intuitive nature," and sticking to "external criteria," such as adhering to certain words being spoken, signatures being made, or certain symbolic acts whose meaning is absolutely determined. These signify strict formalism of law (Weber, 1976:396-397). 2) There is also "logical abstraction formalism," where "legally significant criteria are revealed through logical interpretation, clear legal concepts are formed in the form of strictly abstract rules, and these legal concepts are applied" (Weber, 1976:397). When the latter's logical rationality is adhered to, an inevitable contradiction arises between formal rationality and substantive rationality (Weber, 1976:397).

c. Formalism of Logical Abstraction

Let's concretize the concept of "formalism of logical abstraction." When considering the production and sale of products in a fast-food restaurant, an understanding of the market segment targeted by the product, the identification of consumer demographics, purchasing purposes and intentions, consumer needs, and preferences is carried out. This understanding leads to the establishment of rules such as the time frame within which services must be provided to customers after ordering, appropriate cooking methods and times, suitable side menus, store location, store layout, and pricing range. Thus, the practical operation of a fast-food restaurant is managed by adhering to rationally established workflow rules, with rules formulated and applied as manuals, and general rules established from specific situations.

d. Requirement for "Substantive Rationality"

The requirement for "substantive rationality" is due to the influence of norms with a different nature from abstract logical interpretations on legal decision-making. Ethical directives, utilitarian or other purposive rules, or political principles have influence, and these should break through both external formalism and logical abstraction formalism (Weber, 1976:397).

These points can also be reconstructed regarding the operations of fast-food restaurants. Even if the production and sales processes of products are specified as formal rules in manuals, they cannot satisfy the diverse needs of individual customers. In cases where it is necessary to satisfy specific needs of individual customers beyond the rules set forth, on-the-spot staff are required to respond flexibly beyond the established rules. For example, customers with specific food allergies or religious dietary restrictions cannot be accommodated by general recipes or manuals. Appropriate responses to such situations are required.

e. "Formal Rationality" and "Substantive Rationality"

"Formal rationality" entails applying formulated general rules to individual cases, and all decision-making and actions adhere to the formulated rules and commands. "Substantive rationality," on the other hand, lies in consciously realizing specific values or objectives in individual cases, going beyond the framework of rules, and requiring subjective insight and responsibility of decision-makers beyond the established rules, with accountability for the results. This issue will be confirmed in the next section regarding economic activities.

(2) Formal Rationality and Substantive Rationality in Economic Activities

a. Abstraction and Disregard for Individuality

According to Weber, "the formal rationality of economic actions refers to the degree of calculation applied to economic actions, which is technically feasible for such actions and actually applied in economic calculations... Substantive rationality, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which the supply of goods by a certain human group with economic inclinations... is observed, performed, or can be performed under certain standards of value evaluation, regardless of the nature of those standards" (Weber, 1976:44). "Every economic action can be represented quantitatively, that is, in terms of 'calculable' deliberation, to the extent that all rational economic actions inherently involve 'forethought' expressed quantitatively, i.e., in the form of 'calculable' deliberation... This concept is... unambiguous, at least in the sense that money as a form represents the maximum formal calculability... For substantive rationality, the concept is entirely ambiguous. It merely represents the following axiomatic meaning: the fact that the purposes of an action are calculated in a manner that is technically feasible by employing adaptive methods does not necessarily mean that it is pure formally rational (although it may be relatively so). In addition to this, there are various other requirements such as ethical, political, utilitarian, hedonistic, status-oriented, egalitarian, etc., and other demands, setting criteria for the results of economic action, which need to be measured by value-rational or substantively rational standards, irrespective of how formally 'rational' they are, i.e., how calculable they are in terms of the given standards" (Weber, 1976:45). Through monetary conversion, the individuality of each commodity is disregarded, and its value is quantified by monetary measures, which represents formal rationalization. Similarly, human capital is quantified by annual income. However, each individual within a family is an irreplaceable entity, and the relationships among humans are substantively rational.

b. Formal Rationalization in the Case of "Acura Home"

Let's examine the formal rationalization of business operations through a specific case of a construction company. In the "Higashimurayama City Honcho District Project" organized by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, an experiment was conducted to reduce private enterprise building prices by approximately 30% (https://www.city.higashimurayama.tokyo.jp/ shisei/machi/machidukuri/i-town.html). "Acura Home" (AQ Group Co., Ltd., founded in 1978, capital: 93.14 million yen, sales: 59.5 billion yen, employees: 1,522 as of March 2023, https://www.aqura.co.jp/company/history/) participated in the project and made it possible to construct buildings for approximately 370,000 yen compared to the average unit price of about 740,000 yen for Tokyo buildings. This was achieved through thorough calculation and rationalization of each task and operation involved in residential construction. Traditional craftsman-style wooden construction often involves unnecessary work procedures and processes. Prior to Acura Home's introduction of cost calculations for wood construction, there was no standard calculation method for craftsmen and construction companies, resulting in a lack of cost understanding. Consequently, unnecessary thick beams and boards were used in construction. The introduction of cost calculations for wooden construction by Acura Home resembled F. Taylor's "scientific management" (Taylor, 1993). Taylor's method involved "time studies" where the time required for each task was measured with a stopwatch, setting a standard daily work quota. Additionally, through "motion studies," efficient methods of performing tasks were observed, and standard operations were set. Based on these measurements and observations, standard times and operations for all tasks were established, aiming to maximize work efficiency. Acura Home calculated labor and material costs for each task in increments of tens to hundreds of yen, and focused on eliminating unnecessary elements throughout all construction processes. In traditional craftsman-led construction, costs for each task and material were not calculated, and construction projects were often accepted as a whole without knowing their profitability until completion.

Acura Home began creating price lists for all materials needed for construction since 2002, conducting cost analyses for over 20,000 items, from exterior wall materials to flooring materials, and digitized the data. The company also calculated craftsmen's wages at an hourly rate for each task, such as "sash installation": 3,221 yen, "installation of sliding door middle shelves": 1,224 yen, "installation of porch eaves": 816 yen, etc. This database, known as the "Acura System," was sold to construction companies nationwide and adopted by 2,600 companies across the country. Material costs, labor costs, and personnel expenses became calculable and predictable. Cost reductions were achieved through calculations. For example, although tall doors were initially thought to be more expensive than regular doors, after calculating material and construction costs, it was found that tall doors were actually more cost-effective. Similarly, using high-quality wallpaper and flooring materials throughout the house, rather than opting for cheaper materials in closets, was found to be more cost-effective due to simplified material management, reduced work time, and overall cost-effectiveness, despite higher material costs. Thus, quality was improved, and cost reduction was justified through calculation (Nikkei Industrial Newspaper, 2014/02/13).

By adhering to the calculability of all construction processes, labor costs, and material expenses involved in building detached houses, rational construction methods become possible. This construction method, with its high level of calculation, is formally rational. If Acura Home can achieve high-quality housing at affordable prices, it will solve social problems through its core business of providing high-quality, affordable housing. Formal rationality in economic activities refers to the degree of calculation based on forethought and deliberation in terms of currency, leading to standardized and rationalized operations. Monetary calculations enable the calculation of construction processes and costs for wooden housing construction.

c. Profit Management through EVA (Economic Value Added) in Sony's Product Development

Let's further examine specific cases. In 1997, Sony adopted a U.S.-style corporate governance structure and introduced an executive officer system. This separation resulted in a distinction between statutory directors and executives responsible for each business unit. Shareholder control was strengthened, reducing the number of directors from 38 to 10, similar to the United States (Nikkei Shimbun, morning edition, 1997/07/30). Profit management through EVA (Economic Value Added) was introduced in product development, and the production department was incorporated as a subsidiary, emphasizing value-added calculation and cost reduction systems. As a result, Sony's economic activities became more calculable through monetary measures, and its management system became formally rationalized. However, innovation was not accounted for. The company culture of nurturing undeveloped technologies in secret from superiors, a practice that existed within Sony's development division, was lost (Nikkei Shimbun online edition, 2012/10/05), and the formal rationalization of product development was promoted. Substantive rationality implies responding on a case-by-case basis beyond the framework of rules and regulations, taking into account individual situations and specific conditions. The development of the "Walkman," for example, was initially proposed by a young employee, but was opposed by all Sony executives and technical professionals. Only then-President Akio Morita gave the green light.

d. HondaR&D's Independent Development of Airbags from Scratch

When the idea of installing "airbags" in automobiles was proposed at  HondaR&D, everyone except the president opposed it. It took 16 years from development to practical application. Honda takes pride in its engineers conducting independent technical development. The technology for airbags had already been developed by Mercedes, which had made its patents publicly available for free, but Honda chose to develop its own system. Before this system became standard equipment, over 11,000 people died annually in traffic accidents, but after its widespread use, the number dropped to below 5,000 (Nikkei Shimbun Web edition, 2012/10/11).

During the 16-year development period from 1971 to 1987, there were no results in the first 10 years. Numerous expensive experimental vehicles were crashed, and extensive research was conducted. Despite spending vast amounts of money, with no results, the development team, which initially consisted of dozens of people, was reduced to just four. Rumors circulated about other companies withdrawing from the project, and there were voices within Honda questioning why they were still pursuing it. Eventually, a "halt development order" was issued from management. However, under the condition of "absolutely completing the project," the order was overturned to "continue." The "halt development order" seemed to gauge the motivation of the development team. After several years passed with no results, researchers struggled with the idea that they were wasting the company's funds. The head of the research institute responded with, "Can the company go bankrupt with the money you guys use! Never give up." Honda's research and development had a duty to ensure the safety system had zero malfunctions. The entire development department set a standard for achieving safety by limiting malfunctions to "zero." The 16-year research and development period was dedicated to achieving trust in safety. In 1987, Honda succeeded in developing Japan's first proprietary driver-side airbag system, which was rapidly adopted. Later, in 1998, it developed the world's first side airbag system. This system, developed as Honda's unique device, featured "non-deployment" control, where the airbag would not inflate if a sleeping child's head was in the deployment area (https://global.honda/p/tech/Airbag_system/closeup/). The motivation for Honda's long-term research and development lies in the values of professional ethics and human safety.

Both the "Walkman" and the "airbag" underwent processes from development to productization that could not be predicted or calculated. Innovation involves processes beyond predictability and calculation. Both cost calculation and innovation are required to ensure the continuity of business operations and the competitiveness of a company. Currently, Honda is also pursuing technological development through open innovation with start-up companies and other companies. This is an organizational strategy that combines "skunk works" and "adhocracy," which will be discussed later.