1.6. 官僚制の諸特徴

(1) 官僚制の性質(Weber,1976:125)

「官僚制」は，以下のような条件によって成立する．

i. 目的合理的，価値合理的に，一定の手続きによって，規則が制定・変更され，
ii. 規則は一般的規則として個別ケースに適用され，すべての意思決定と行為が規則に基づき，
iii. 支配者も服従者も非人格的な秩序に従い，規則の範囲内で命令と服従がなされる．

(2) 官僚制組織の性質

「官僚制組織」は，以下のような性質をもつ．

i. 継続的な事業運営(Betrieb)が行われ，
ii. 規則によって職位・職務権限・職務内容が明確に定義され，
iii. 職位の階層制が構成され，
iv. 専門的知識による支配が成立し，規則を適用するための専門的知識と訓練を必要とし，
v. 公私が分離し，職位の専有がなく，
vi. 行政・調達の手段が職員から分離され，
vii. 予備的な討論から最終的な決定まで，すべての意思決定・処分・指令は文書化される．

(3) 官僚制の職員の性質

　官僚制組織は，以下のような「職員」によって運営される．

i. 人格的に自由であり，非人格的に職務義務に服従し，
ii. 明確な職務階層制に位置づけられ，
iii. 明確に定義された職務権限をもち，
iv. 自由な選抜から雇用契約が結ばれ，
v. 専門資格(試験・免状・資格)によって任命され，
vi. 厳格で統一的な規律と統制に服し(Weber,1976:126-127)，
vii. 職務は職業であり(Weber 1976:561)，
viii. 終身雇用制・安定的な雇用継続が前提とされる(Weber,1976:563)．

(4) 官僚制の6原則

　官僚制の特徴は，以下の6原則に集約される(富永,1997:145)．

i. 権限の原則(規則で権限が明確に定義)，
ii. 官職階層制による単一支配秩序の成立，
iii. 文書主義の貫徹，
iv. 専門訓練と専門知識に基づいて分業化された職務活動，
v. 兼職を禁止したフルタイムの職務遂行，
vi. 技術的専門知識(法律学･行政学･経営学)の要請．

(5) 形式合理的な組織としての官僚制

　官僚制組織は，すべての意思決定と行為が制定された規則に基づくという意味で形式的に合理的である．規則は管理と職務の標準化をもたらす．形式合理化は，規則への準拠，予測・計算可能性の増大，物象化(Versachlichung)，非人格化を構成要素とし，組織では，一般的管理規則のすべての個別的ケースへの平等な適用を意味する．事案や人物の個別性は捨象され，組織構成員を非人格化する．「物象化」によって組織では，人間が労働力として扱われ，モノではないがモノのように扱われる．市場での貨幣換算による財とサービスが貨幣という基準で数値的に評価されるのと同様，それは形式合理的である．

(1) Characteristics of Bureaucracy (Weber, 1976:125)

"Bureaucracy" is established by the following conditions:

i. Rules are formulated and modified through certain procedures in a purposive-rational and value-rational manner.
ii. Rules are applied to individual cases as general rules, and all decisions and actions are based on rules.

iii. Both rulers and subjects adhere to a depersonalized order, and commands and obedience occur within the framework of rules.

(2) Characteristics of Bureaucratic Organizations

"Bureaucratic organizations" possess the following characteristics:

i. Continuous business operations (Betrieb) are conducted
ii. Positions, authorities, and job contents are clearly defined by rules.
iii. Hierarchical structure of positions is established.
iv. Governance by specialized knowledge is achieved, requiring specialized knowledge and training to apply rules.
v. Public and private spheres are separated, and there is no ownership of positions.
vi. Administrative and procurement means are separated from personnel.
vii. From preliminary discussions to final decisions, all decisions, actions, and instructions are documented.

(3) Characteristics of Bureaucratic Personnel

Bureaucratic organizations are operated by the following "personnel":

i. They are personally free but submit to duties in a impersonalized manner.
ii. They are positioned within a clear hierarchy of duties.
iii. They have clearly defined job authorities.
iv. They are appointed through free selection and employment contracts.
v. They are appointed based on professional qualifications (examinations, licenses, qualifications).
vi. They adhere to strict and uniform discipline and control.
vii. Their duties constitute a profession.
viii. Lifetime employment and stable job continuation are assumed.

(4) Six Principles of Bureaucracy

The characteristics of bureaucracy are summarized in the following six principles (富永,1997:145):

i. Principle of authority (clear definition of authority by rules).
ii. Establishment of a single hierarchical order through bureaucratic hierarchy.
iii. Adherence to document-centricity.
iv. Division of labor activities based on specialized training and knowledge.
v. Full-time performance prohibiting concurrent employment.
vi. Demand for technical expertise (law, administration, management).

(5) Bureaucracy as a Formal Rational Organization

Bureaucratic organizations are formally rational in the sense that all decisions and actions are based on established rules. Rules bring about standardization of management and duties. Formal rationalization consists of adherence to rules, increased predictability and calculability, objectification (Versachlichung), and depersonalization, meaning equal application of general management rules to all individual cases in the organization. The individuality of cases and persons is disregarded, depersonalizing members of the organization. Through "objectification," humans are treated as labor forces and handled like objects. Just as goods and services in the market are numerically evaluated by monetary conversion, it is formally rational.