2.2. マートンの「逆機能」の指摘

「官僚制」に関し，R.K.マートンによる「逆機能」(dysfunction)の指摘がある(Merton,1968:251-254)．この指摘は，マートンの著書，『社会理論と社会構造』の「Ⅷビューロクラシーの構造とパースナリティ」(Merton,1968:249-269)でなされている．マートンの指摘に関し，ヴェーバーの官僚制の問題意識を正確に確認する必要があるが，マートンによれば，官僚制の議論では，「ビューロクラシー組織の積極的な長所や機能が強調されて，かかる構造の内部的緊迫や緊張は全く無視されたに近い」(Merton,1968:251)，「ヴェーバーの論議は，ビューロクラシー構造が達成する正確さ，信頼性，能率にばかり関心を払っているが，この構造の矛盾(ambivalence)が提供するもう一つの視角から検討できる」(Merton,1968:252)として，以下のような「逆機能」に言及した． 

(1) 「訓練された無能力」

　官僚制は訓練による規律によって規則順守の意思決定と組織運営を実現する．訓練は過去の成功例に基づき意思決定を標準化・ルーティン化する．ゆえに職務上の想定内の問題に試行錯誤を要せず，規則を適用し，誰でも職務遂行が可能となる．しかし，従来と異なる問題状況，規則制定時に予測しなかった状況で官僚制の対応は不適切な結果を導く．環境状況の変化にもかかわらず，従来通りの規則順守は組織目標の達成を妨げ，官僚制は「訓練された無能力」(trained incapacity)を露呈する．この問題はマートンが指摘するように「二価性」(ambivalent)であり(Merton,1968:252)，組織の矛盾過程を意味する．どのような組織も何を達成でき，何を達成できないかの問題がある．官僚制の正確性，信頼性だけでなく，官僚制の限界の認識が要請される(Merton,1968:252)．

(2) 「目的の転移」

　官僚制では，組織目的の達成のため規則が制定される．しかし，規則を順守する官僚制職員の訓練された規律の心情(sentiments)から(Merton,1968:252)，規則の順守自体が組織目的の達成より優先され，手段であった規則の順守が目的であるかのような対応が行われる．規則の順守が組織目標の達成を阻害する．これを「目的の転移」(displacement of goal)とした(Merton,1968:253)．この指摘も組織の矛盾過程の問題である．

(3) 規則への「過同調」

「過同調」(over-conformity)は，組織目的の達成のため規則が制定されるが，「法規万能主義」のように，過度に規則から逸脱する意思決定の回避を意味する．前例のない意思決定，規則の枠を超える意思決定は困難となる．組織目的の達成が妨げられても規則順守が優先される．マートンは，この問題を継続的な訓練による規則順守への心情(sentiment)を原因とし，「かかる心情から自己の義務に対する献身」によって，非効率でも「きまりきった活動が規則正しく遂行される」(Merton,1968:253)．

(4) 繁文縟礼

　官僚制の特徴の一つは「文書主義」である．あらゆる指令と意思決定をすべて文書化することは「繫文縟礼」(red tape)となる(Merton,1968:253)．一定の書式の文書があること，文書に一定の文言が明記され，日付，署名のあるなしなどが問題とされ，そのような文書がなければ，手続きが進行せず，手続きは煩雑化し執行もされない．この結果，文書作成それ自体が職務となりかねない．これも文書主義に関する「過同調」の一例である．

(5) セクショナリズム（職場集団の共通利害の擁護と保身）

　官僚制の職員は安定的な雇用関係から，同じ職場の職員の利害が共通し，先任順に昇進し，職員同士の攻撃は最小限となる(Merton,1968:255)．職員たちはインフォーマルな内部集団で結束する(Merton,1968:257)．この結果，公益や顧客より，自分たちの共通利害を優先する．自分たちの利益が十分に保障されない場合，上司・大臣の処理できない大量の資料や文書を提出し，あるいは文書を隠ぺいし，必要な情報の提供や報告を遅延，回避させる(Merton,1968:255)．こうして自己の保身と所属部署の利益を擁護する．

　以上のような逆機能は，組織の実際の問題を多面的に描写する．問題は，逆機能を発生させる官僚制の構造にある(Merton,1968:254)．

Regarding "bureaucracy," R.K. Merton highlights the concept of "dysfunction" (Merton, 1968:251-254). This critique is presented in Merton's work, "Bureaucratic Structure and Personality" in his book "Social Theory and Social Structure" (Merton, 1968:249-269). Regarding Merton's critique, it is essential to accurately understand Weber's concerns about bureaucracy. According to Merton, discussions on bureaucracy tend to emphasize the positive merits and functions of bureaucratic organizations while largely ignoring internal tensions and pressures within such structures (Merton, 1968:251). He argues that Weber's discussions focus solely on the accuracy, reliability, and efficiency achieved by bureaucratic structures, neglecting the alternative perspective provided by the contradictions inherent in these structures (Merton, 1968:252). Merton identifies the following dysfunctions:

(1) "Trained Incapacity"

Bureaucracy achieves decision-making and organizational management through discipline enforced by training. Training standardizes and routinizes decision-making based on past successes. Consequently, bureaucratic responses to anticipated problems within job duties require no trial and error; rules are applied, allowing anyone to perform their duties. However, when faced with unforeseen problem situations or situations not predicted during rule-making, bureaucratic responses lead to inappropriate outcomes. Despite changes in environmental conditions, adherence to rules as usual obstructs the achievement of organizational goals, revealing a "trained incapacity" (Merton, 1968:252). This issue, as Merton points out, is "ambivalent," signifying the contradictory process within organizations. Every organization faces limitations in what it can and cannot accomplish, thus necessitating recognition of the limitations of bureaucracy, not just its accuracy and reliability (Merton, 1968:252).

(2) "Goal Displacement"

In bureaucracy, rules are established to achieve organizational goals. However, due to the disciplined sentiments of bureaucratic staff to adhere to rules, the adherence to rules itself takes precedence over achieving organizational goals. Thus, adherence to rules becomes the goal rather than a means to an end. Compliance with rules inhibits the achievement of organizational objectives. This phenomenon is termed "goal displacement" (Merton, 1968:253), representing another issue of contradiction within the organization's processes.

(3) "Over-Conformity to Rules"

"Over-conformity" refers to the avoidance of decision-making that deviates excessively from rules in pursuit of organizational goals, akin to "legalism." Decision-making beyond precedent or beyond the framework of rules becomes difficult. Even when adherence to rules hinders the achievement of organizational objectives, rule compliance takes precedence. Merton attributes this issue to sentiments towards rule compliance instilled through continuous training, leading to the execution of "formal activities" dutifully, even if inefficient (Merton, 1968:253).

(4) "Red Tape"

One characteristic of bureaucracy is "document-centricity." Documenting every instruction and decision leads to "red tape" (Merton, 1968:253). Specific formats for documents, inclusion of certain wordings, and presence or absence of dates and signatures become critical. Without such documents, procedures cannot proceed, leading to complication and non-execution of procedures. Consequently, document creation itself may become a duty. This is another example of over-conformity to document-centricity.

(5) "Sectionalism :Advocacy of Common Interests and Self-Preservation)"

Bureaucratic personnel, owing to stable employment, share common interests with colleagues in the same workplace. They advance in seniority order and minimize attacks on each other (Merton, 1968:255). They form cohesive bonds within informal internal groups (Merton, 1968:257). Consequently, they prioritize their common interests over the public interest or customer welfare. If their interests are not sufficiently safeguarded, they inundate superiors or ministers with a massive amount of documents or withhold documents, delaying or avoiding the provision of necessary information or reports (Merton, 1968:255). Thus, they advocate for self-preservation and the interests of their departments.

These dysfunctions depict various aspects of actual organizational issues. The problem lies in the bureaucratic structures that give rise to these dysfunctions (Merton, 1968:254).