「支配」(Herschaft)は「力」(Macht)の特殊ケースであり(Weber,1976:541),「力」は「自己の意思を他人の行動に押しつける可能性」(Weber,1976:542)である.組織の支配は,組織成員が,個人の自らの自由,自己への統制権を主体的に放棄し,組織の命令に従うことである.その過程は,バーナードの組織論では「非人格化による調整」(Barnard,1938:77)が該当する.「支配」,「非人格化」は,恣意や公私混同,個人的な欲求や自由を一部放棄し,組織の意思決定の複雑性を縮減させ,一定秩序を成立させ,協力・協働を調整する.「官僚制」の場合,「制定された規則に従う」という意味で秩序が成立する.本研究の視点からすれば,問題は,その動機である.
「支配」には,ヴェーバーによれば,「利害状況による支配」と「権威による支配」がある(Weber, 1976:542).前者は,市場の寡占・購買力・交換力による支配であり,貨幣量・市場価値ある情報・専門知識・技能・資産格差によって影響力が行使される.大企業は中小企業の納入価格を制御し,服従者は自己利得の継続確保のため支配を受容する.そのような支配への服従は「利害」に動機づけられ,服従の「義務」はない.この場合,経済的手段の自由な行使と「利害」が支配の成立に深くかかわる.一方,「権威による支配」は「権威」(Autoritäte)が「命令権力」(Befehlsgewalt)と「服従義務」(Gehorsamspflicht)を成立させ,支配の正当性への信念によって服従は「義務」となる.
法の順守は,1)自己の利得を高める「利害」から,2)法の順守,それ自体が正しいことで,順守の「義務」からの違いがある.「利害状況による支配」は不服従による損失と服従の引き換えに得られる利得のバランスの合理的計算が動機となる.「権威による支配」は,損失のリスクがあっても,無条件に義務から服従する.そのような支配は,非合理的には,伝統的家父長制の家長の動員力に従う家族構成員の「義務」,合理的には,制定された規則に定められた職務権限の範囲内で命令に従う「義務」に動機づけられる.それらの義務は規則の順守が正しいとする正当性への信仰,組織への所属に由来する.組織の一員であれば,職務命令に従わねばならない.
「利害」と「義務」の違いについて,ヴェーバーは次のように指摘する.「家具運送会社が転居の時期のころに規則正しく広告を出すなら,この規則正しさは「利害状況」に制約され」,一方,官僚制組織の成員が「毎日決まった時刻に」出勤するのは「習慣」や「利害状況」だけでなく「命令としての秩序(服務規程)の「妥当」によって制約され」,命令への不服従は「不利をもたらすだけでなく,…「義務感」によっても…忌避される」(Weber,1976:16;ウェーバー,1987:47).「秩序の「妥当」は,…慣習または利害状況によって制約された,単なる規則正しさ以上のことを意味」し,「利害」よりも「義務」による秩序の「正当性」が要請される(Weber,1976:16;ウェーバー,1987:4647).秩序の「正当性」は,その秩序が模範的,規範的,拘束的であると主観的に意味づけられる(Weber,1976:16; ウェーバー,1987:46-48).それが正当であるとの信念から義務が生まれる.官僚制の場合,秩序の正当性は,制定された規則の正当性に置き換わる.
「利害状況による支配」は,「利害動機」からの支配であり,利害の一致と妥協から成立する.それに対し「権威による支配」は権威の正当性と職務規程の順守が「義務動機」からの支配である.規範的な正当性に対し利害状況に方向づけられた支配は比較にならないほど不安定である(Weber,1976:16).「利害」は状況と時間の経過によって変化する.
ニスカネンの研究(Niskanen,1972)は,官僚の利害状況に制約された意思決定理論であり,ヴェーバーの官僚制理論の分析視角との違いに着目する必要がある.ヴェーバーは,支配の意味を「利害」ではなく「義務」とする傾向がある.ニスカネンは,ミクロ経済学の意思決定主体である「ホモ・エコノミクス」のように利得の最大化に動機づけられる官僚が「政治的な市場」で自己の効用,所属する部局と組織の「予算獲得の最大化」への動機づけから官僚制を理論化する.ニスカネンは,後に,「予算獲得の最大化」を,政策実現コストの最小化と予算全体からコストを差し引いた,官僚が規則の範囲内で任意に充当できる「裁量予算(discretionary budget)の最大化」に修正している(Niskanen,1991:18-19).
ニスカネンの理論は,組織の実際の状況を現実的に分析する.衆議院の決算行政監視委員会への財務省提出資料によれば,5年間で19兆円の復興予算が被災地以外の震災対策に支出されている.復興増税と消費税増税を推進した財務省(国税庁)は,2011年度の3次補正予算で,被災地以外の12の税務署の耐震改修に12億円を充当している(毎日新聞朝刊2012/10/11).個々の組織の具体的ケースでは,自己利得の合理的計算による利害と,道徳的感情,規範・格率による義務は実際には混在し,流動的,結合的である.「支配」の純粋型では,その意味の明晰性の確保から,「利害」と「義務」を区別する必要がある.「特別会計」を例とすれば,「予備費」が計上され,利用率0%のケースがある.予備費は国会審議を経ず,内閣の判断で使える.財務省によれば,2021年度の補正後予算の予備費(2014~21年度)で「外国為替資金」3,000億円,「年金」2,104億円,「食料安定供給」1,071億円,「財政投融資」700億円,「労働保険」615億円,「東日本大震災復興」500億円,これらの利用率は0%である.充当されず蓄えられた予備費は年8,000億円規模で利用実績2%である.予算確保は官僚の権力資源となり得る.
予備費は,規模が10兆円を超えても,決算報告で,どの事業に,どの程度まで使用されたか不明となる.自然災害など予見できない歳出を想定する「予備費」は,予算要求段階では概略的な使い道だけが示され,内閣の判断で使用できる.コロナ禍前は5,000億円だったが,2020年度,約10兆円,原油価格・物価高騰対策,ウクライナ情勢対応などで上乗せられる.2023年度,さらに約1兆円,予備費に加えられた.予備費の執行は全額.翌年度に繰り越したケースもあり,説明責任が問われない.
「官僚制」は,制定された規則に基づく合理的な命令権限による「権威による支配」であり,純粋型では,利害からではなく,服従の義務が要請される(Weber,1976:542).「支配」は,ヴェーバーにとって限定された意味で「権威をもった命令権力」に「義務」から従う場合である.「支配」の「この狭義の概念は,利害状況によって,とりわけ市場的に,制約された,形式的には常に利害関心の自由な発動に基づいている力と,正に正面から対立する概念であり,したがって権威をもった命令権力と同義」(Weber, 1976:544)となる.「命令の内容をそれが命令であるということ自体の故に,自分たちの行動の格率としたかのごとくに行われる(「服従」)」こそ「支配」を構成する(Weber,1976:544).近代組織の場合,そこに「権威の受容説」が成立する.
市場の専有的地位から成立する経済的な「力」は,利害状況での価格設定など取引・交換条件の決定に優位であり強制であり得る.スポーツやディベート,コミュニケーション能力に優れ,あるいは性的な魅力など,その他の優越性による影響力の行使も厳密には「支配」ではない.メガ・バンクが地方銀行に資産状況の優位性や情報の非対称性から交渉条件の設定に優位でも,それだけでは支配ではない(Weber,1976:123).「支配」の場合,その命令を正当なものと受容し,実際に従うチャンスのあることを意味する.官僚制の問題を詳細に検討する前に,ヴェーバーの意思決定と行動の動機づけのカテゴリーを次節で整理しておこう.規則の制定と順守も,動機から解明される.
"Dominance" (Herschaft) is a specific case of "power" (Macht) (Weber, 1976:541), and "power" is the "potential to impose one's own will on the actions of others" (Weber, 1976:542). Organizational dominance is when members of an organization actively relinquish their individual freedoms and self-control to obey the organization's orders. This process corresponds to what Bernard's organizational theory calls "coordination by mutual adjustment through non-personalization" (Barnard, 1938:77). "Dominance" and "coordination through non-personalization" involve sacrificing some degree of arbitrariness, blurring of public and private interests, personal desires, and freedoms to reduce the complexity of organizational decision-making, establish a certain order, and coordinate cooperation. In the case of "bureaucracy," order is established by adhering to established rules. From the perspective of this study, the issue lies in its motivation.
According to Weber, there are two types of "dominance": "dominance by interest situation" and "dominance by authority" (Weber, 1976:542). The former is domination through monopolization of markets, purchasing power, and bargaining power, where influence is exerted by differences in monetary amounts, market values, information, specialized knowledge, skills, and asset disparities. Large companies control the supply prices of small and medium-sized enterprises, and subordinates accept dominance to ensure the continuation of their self-interests. Compliance with such dominance is motivated by "interests," and there is no obligation to obey. In this case, the establishment of dominance deeply involves the exercise of economic means and "interests." On the other hand, "dominance by authority" is established by "authority" creating "power to command" and "obligation to obey," and obedience becomes a "duty" based on beliefs in the legitimacy of dominance.
Compliance with the law differs between 1) enhancing one's own interests and 2) the duty of compliance itself being right. "Dominance by interest situation" is motivated by rational calculations of balancing gains obtained through disobedience against losses due to disobedience. "Dominance by authority" involves unconditional obedience out of duty, even with the risk of loss. Such dominance is motivated by the "duty" of family members to follow the mobilizing power of the patriarch in traditional patriarchal families irrationally and by the "duty" to obey orders within the scope of duties and powers prescribed by established rules rationally. These duties stem from beliefs in the legitimacy of rule adherence and affiliation with the organization. As a member of the organization, one must obey orders.
Weber points out the difference between "interests" and "duties" as follows: "If a furniture transport company regularly advertises at the time of moving, this regularity is 'constrained by interests,' while the members of a bureaucratic organization who 'come to work at a fixed time every day' are 'constrained not only by 'habit' or 'interests' but also by the 'appropriateness' of orders (service regulations) as a command," and disobedience to orders is not only "disadvantageous but also... avoided by... a sense of 'duty'" (Weber, 1976:16; Weber, 1987:47). The "appropriateness" of order means more than just regularity constrained by custom or interests, and the "legitimacy" of order by duty is demanded more than "interests" by the order. The "legitimacy" of order is subjectively interpreted as being exemplary, normative, and binding. Duty arises from the belief that it is legitimate. In the case of bureaucracy, the legitimacy of order is replaced by the legitimacy of established rules.
"Dominance by interest situation" is domination driven by "interest motives," established through the alignment and compromise of interests. In contrast, "dominance by authority" is domination driven by the legitimacy of authority and adherence to duty as prescribed by the rules of duty. Domination directed by normative legitimacy in contrast to interest-driven dominance is incomparably more unstable (Weber, 1976:16). "Interests" change with the situation and the passage of time.
Niskanen's study (Niskanen, 1972) presents a decision theory of bureaucracy constrained by the interests of bureaucrats. It's essential to note the differences in analytical perspectives between Niskanen's study and Weber's theory of bureaucracy. Weber tends to define domination not in terms of "interests" but rather "duty." Niskanen theorizes bureaucracy based on the motivation of bureaucrats, who, like the economic agents in microeconomics known as "Homo Economicus," are motivated by profit maximization. They rationalize bureaucracy by aiming to maximize their utility in the "political market," pursuing the maximization of their own utility, as well as budget acquisition for their departments and organizations. Niskanen later revised this to conceptualize "budget maximization" as "maximization of discretionary budget," where bureaucrats can allocate discretionary budgets within the limits of rules (Niskanen, 1991:18-19).
Niskanen's theory realistically analyzes the actual situations within organizations. According to documents submitted to the Budget Administration and Oversight Committee of the House of Representatives, over a five-year period, 19 trillion yen of reconstruction budget has been spent on disaster countermeasures outside disaster areas. The Ministry of Finance (National Tax Agency), which promoted reconstruction tax increases and consumption tax increases, allocated 1.2 billion yen for earthquake-resistant renovations for 12 tax offices outside disaster areas in the third supplementary budget for fiscal 2011 (Mainichi Shimbun, October 11, 2012). In specific cases of individual organizations, a mixture of rational calculations based on self-interest and obligations based on moral emotions, norms, and standards actually exists, which are fluid and interconnected. To ensure the clarity of the meaning of "dominance," it is necessary to distinguish between "interests" and "duties." For example, in the case of "special accounts," "reserve funds" are allocated, but there are cases where they have a 0% utilization rate. Reserve funds can be used at the discretion of the Cabinet without parliamentary deliberation. According to the Ministry of Finance, reserve funds in the supplementary budget for fiscal 2021 (from fiscal 2014 to 2021) include 300 billion yen for "foreign exchange funds," 210.4 billion yen for "pensions," 107.1 billion yen for "stable food supply," 70 billion yen for "fiscal investment and loans," 61.5 billion yen for "employment insurance," and 50 billion yen for "Great East Japan Earthquake reconstruction." The utilization rates for these are 0%. Unused reserve funds, totaling around 800 billion yen annually, with a utilization rate of 2%, become a power resource for bureaucrats.
Even if the scale of reserve funds exceeds 10 trillion yen, it becomes unclear in the settlement report which projects they were used for and to what extent. "Reserve funds" for unforeseeable expenditures such as natural disasters are outlined only at the stage of budget requests and can be used at the discretion of the Cabinet. Before examining the issues of bureaucracy in detail, let's organize Weber's categories of decision-making and motivation in the next section. The establishment and compliance of rules are also elucidated by motivation.