ヴェーバーは,「支配」を,服従の動機によって,1)「伝統的支配」,2)「カリスマ的支配」,3)「合法的支配」(Weber,1976:124)の三つに類型化した.そのうち「合法的支配」だけが合理的性質をもち,その最も合理的な純粋型が「理念型」としての「官僚制」である.
「伝統的支配」は,繰り返し成立する支配権力と秩序を神聖視する信念(Weber,1976:552),伝統の神聖性への信仰から権威が与えられる.伝統的慣習を順守する動機,それへの逸脱による悪しき禍の回避,それに定められた支配者への服従を意味する(Weber,1976:124).
「カリスマ的支配」は,支配者の非日常的な資質,呪術的能力,啓示,英雄性,模範性,強靭な精神,弁舌の力への服従者の感情的な帰依と信奉からの支配である(Weber,1976:124;555).「カリスマ」(charisma)は,「恵み」(χάρισμα)を意味するギリシャ語を語源とし,新約聖書では「神の恩寵」,神に与えられた「非日常的力」である.伝統的支配には支配者の「恣意」,カリスマ的支配には支配者の「予言」が含まれ,予測・計算が困難であり,合理的根拠なく神秘的・超自然的という意味で非合理的である.
「合法的支配」は「法による支配」であり,正規の手続きで制定された規則の「合法性」への信仰から(Weber,1976:124),法の順守が正当化され貫徹される.規則は,支配者,管理者・上司をも拘束し,その恣意を排除し,規則の適用に予測・計算可能性が確保され,支配に合理的な性質を与える.組織管理の「官僚制」は,すべての意思決定と行為が制定された規則に基づく支配・管理である.
ファースト・フード・チェーンの「マクドナルド」のマニュアルによる管理は,官僚制的であり,工業製品のようにレシピを情報処理し,定められた作業手順として規則化する.その徹底した管理の執行は「官僚制」の本質である.調理規則としてのマニュアルは,今日では電子化され,携帯端末やゲーム機器でも繰り返し学習,シミュレーション可能となる.そのような管理は「スターバックス」など,その他の事業体でも採用されている.G.リッツアーは,店舗の管理システムだけでなく「社会のマクドナルド化」と言及している(Ritzer,2015).「マクドナルド化」は管理の合理化としての「官僚制化」を意味する.
国際環境基準ISO14001の導入は,環境基準マニュアルの順守,環境保全の管理規則に定められたワーク・フローを手続化,順守し,組織を官僚制化させる.事業運営には,製品やサービスの質だけでなく,自然環境・社会的課題・幼児労働の回避などを含む労働条件の整備などの各種の国際基準の認定が必要となる.食材や食品納入,輸出には農業の国際標準,GAP(Good Agricultural Practice)の認証が必要となる.GAP認証には農産物の安全性・環境配慮・働く人の健康管理,人権など詳細かつ膨大な規則の順守が要請される.それらはサプライチェーン全体に要請される.農薬の使い方から保管状況など,あらゆる生産工程の文書作成と記録,電子化の認証が必要となる.これらの厳格な規則順守と文書化,プログラム化は確実に組織の事業運営と関連部門全体を「官僚制化」する.
膨大な管理規則やマニュアルはAI/IOT導入によって運用可能となり,組織のDX,自動化は「官僚制化」との共通の論理として整合する.情報システムの導入は,組織管理と運営を自動化,官僚制化する.情報化,マニュアル化,自動化は,機械化・自動ロボット化であり,「官僚制化」に他ならない.その処理は近代以降の管理システムに浸透し,すべての大規模で,ライフ・ラインに関わる重要な組織管理は「官僚制」なしにすまされない.現在の組織の管理領域は官僚制的管理に依存し,それ以外の代替的なシステムは,現段階では確立されない.AI/IOT化,DXによって社会全体が「官僚制化」する.次節で,官僚制の「支配」を確認しよう.組織を理解するためには「協働」のための「支配」を確認する必要がある.
Weber categorized "domination" into three types based on the motive of obedience: 1) "traditional domination," 2) "charismatic domination," and 3) "legal domination" (Weber, 1976:124). Among these, only "legal domination" possesses rational characteristics, with its most rational pure form being the "bureaucracy" as an "ideal type."
"Traditional domination" is based on the belief in the sanctity of repeatedly established powers and orders (Weber, 1976:552). Authority is derived from faith in the sacredness of tradition. It entails motivation to adhere to traditional customs, avoidance of evils through deviation from it, and submission to the prescribed authority (Weber, 1976:124).
"Charismatic domination" involves domination stemming from emotional dependence and adoration of followers towards the non-routine qualities of the ruler, such as magical abilities, revelation, heroism, exemplary behavior, strong spirit, and rhetorical skills (Weber, 1976:124;555). "Charisma" derives from the Greek word for "grace" (χάρισμα) and in the New Testament refers to "divine grace" or "extraordinary power" given by God. While traditional domination involves the ruler's "arbitrariness," charismatic domination includes the ruler's "prophecy," making it irrational in the sense of being mysterious and supernatural, with unpredictable and incalculable aspects.
"Legal domination" refers to "rule by law," grounded in faith in the "legitimacy" of rules enacted through formal procedures (Weber, 1976:124). Adherence to the law is justified and enforced. Rules bind not only rulers but also administrators and superiors, eliminating arbitrariness and ensuring predictability and calculability in rule application, thereby imbuing domination with rational characteristics. Bureaucracy in organizational management entails governance and administration based on rules and regulations.
The management by manuals in fast-food chain "McDonald's" is bureaucratic, processing recipes like industrial products and formalizing them as prescribed operational procedures. The thorough execution of this management embodies the essence of bureaucracy. Manuals as cooking regulations have now been digitized, allowing for repetitive learning and simulation on handheld devices and gaming consoles. Such management practices are also adopted by other businesses like "Starbucks." G. Ritzer refers not only to the management system of the stores but also to the "McDonaldization of society" (Ritzer, 2015), signifying the rationalization of management as bureaucracy.
The adoption of international environmental standard ISO 14001 entails proceduralizing compliance with environmental standard manuals, adhering to the management rules of environmental conservation, and bureaucratizing the organization. Business operations require certification of various international standards, including not only product and service quality but also labor conditions, encompassing environmental issues, social concerns, and avoidance of child labor. Certification such as GAP (Good Agricultural Practice) for agricultural product delivery and export necessitates compliance with detailed and extensive regulations covering product safety, environmental considerations, health management of workers, and human rights throughout the entire supply chain. Documentation and certification of every production process, from pesticide usage to storage conditions, require electronic validation. These stringent compliance, documentation, and programming efforts inevitably bureaucratize the organization's business operations and related departments.
The vast management regulations and manuals become operable through the introduction of AI/IoT, aligning with the organization's digital transformation (DX) and automation as a common logic of bureaucratization. The implementation of information systems automates and bureaucratizes organizational management and operations. Informatization, manualization, and automation entail mechanization and roboticization, constituting nothing but bureaucratization. This processing has permeated modern management systems since the industrial era, and all large-scale organizations, especially those involving critical infrastructure, cannot function without bureaucracy. The current domain of organizational management relies on bureaucratic control, and alternative systems are not yet established at this stage. The societal-wide adoption of AI/IoT and DX leads to the bureaucratization of society. In the following section, let's confirm the "domination" of bureaucracy to understand organizations. Confirming "domination" for "collaboration" is necessary to comprehend organizations.