A variety of internal and external factors contribute to state formation, expansion, and decline. Governments maintain order through a variety of administrative institutions, policies, and procedures, and governments obtain, retain, and exercise power in different ways and for different purposes.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Explain how political changes in the period from c. 1900 to the present led to territorial, demographic, and nationalist developments.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

KC-6.2.III.A.i The redrawing of political boundaries after the withdrawal of former colonial authorities led to the creation of new states.

KC-6.2.III.A.ii The redrawing of political boundaries in some cases led to conflict as well as population displacement and/or resettlements, including those related to the Partition of India and the creation of the state of Israel

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

States created by redrawing of political boundaries:

§ Israel

§ Cambodia

§ Pakistan

As societies develop, they affect and are affected by the ways that they produce, exchange, and consume goods and services.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Explain the economic changes and continuities resulting from the process of decolonization.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

KC-6.3.I.C In newly independent states after World War II, governments often took on a strong role in guiding economic life to promote development.

KC-6.2.III.B The migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles (the former colonizing country), usually in the major cities, maintained cultural and economic ties between the colony and the metropole even after the dissolution of empires.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Governments guiding economic life:

§ Gamal Abdel Nasser’s promotion of economic development in Egypt

§ Indira Ghandi’s economic policies in India

§ Julius Nyerere’s modernization in Tanzania

§ Sirimavo Bandaranaike’s economic policies in Sri Lanka

Migrations:

§ South Asians to Britain

§ Algerians to France

§ Filipinos to the United States

States created by redrawing of political boundaries:

§ Israel

• 1947 -- The United Nations approved a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state

  • • Arabs rejected it

    • Jewish population accepted it

• May 1948 -- Israel was officially declared an independent state

  • • Following the announcement of an independent Israel, five Arab nations—Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon invaded the region

    • 1948 Arab-Israeli War

      • • a cease-fire agreement was reached in 1949

          • • the West Bank became part of Jordan

            • the Gaza Strip became Egyptian territory

Shifting political boundaries following conflict

• 1956 -- Suez Crisis

  • • following Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser overtaking and nationalizationion of the Suez Canal

    • British and French forces, and Israel attacked the Sinai Peninsula and retook the Suez Canal

• 1967 -- Six Day War

  • • Israel took control of the Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and Golan Heights

    • These areas were considered “occupied” by Israel

• 1973 -- Yom Kippur War

  • • Israel gained additional territory in the Golan Heights

• 1979 -- Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat sign peace treaty

  • • Sinai Peninsula returned to Egypt

§ Cambodia

• 1945 - The Japanese occupation ends

• 1946 - France re-imposes its protectorate. A new constitution permits Cambodians to form political parties. Communist guerrillas begin an armed campaign against the French.

• 1953 - Cambodia wins its independence from France. Under King Sihanouk, it becomes the Kingdom of Cambodia.

• 1965 - Sihanouk breaks off relations with the US and allows North Vietnamese guerrillas to set up bases in Cambodia in pursuance of their campaign against the US-backed government in South Vietnam.

• 1969 - The US begins a secret bombing campaign against North Vietnamese forces on Cambodian soil

• 1970 - Prime Minister Lon Nol overthrows Sihanouk in coup. He proclaims the Khmer Republic and sends the army to fight the North Vietnamese in Cambodia

Cambodia Year Zero

• 1975 - Lon Nol is overthrown as the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot occupy Phnom Penh. Sihanouk briefly becomes head of state, the country is re-named Kampuchea.

  • • All city dwellers are forcibly moved to the countryside to become agricultural workers. Money becomes worthless, basic freedoms are curtailed and religion is banned.

    • Hundreds of thousands of the educated middle-classes are tortured and executed in special centres.

    • Others starve, or die from disease or exhaustion.

    • The total death toll during the next three years is estimated to be at least 1.7 million.

• 1977 - Fighting breaks out with Vietnam

• 1978 - Vietnamese forces invade in a lightning assault

• 1979 January - The Vietnamese take Phnom Penh. Pol Pot and Khmer Rouge forces flee to the border region with Thailand.

• 1981 - The pro-Vietnamese Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party wins parliamentary elections. The international community refuses to recognise the new government.

  • • The government-in-exile, which includes the Khmer Rouge and Sihanouk, retains its seat at the United Nations.

• 1985 - Hun Sen becomes prime minister. Cambodia is plagued by guerrilla warfare. Hundreds of thousands become refugees

• 1989 - Vietnamese troops withdraw.

  • • Hun Sen tries to attract foreign investment by abandoning socialism.

    • The country is re-named the State of Cambodia.

    • Buddhism is re-established as the state religion.

§ Pakistan

• Pakistan gained its independence on August 14, 1947 and was led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

• Pakistan (from “Punjab-Afghans-Kasmir-Sind plus the Persian suffix -stan meaning kingdom”)

• From 1947 to 1971 newly independent Pakistan comprised two "wings" separated by India

  • • The eastern wing comprised the single province of East Bengal

    • The politically dominant western wing united three Governor's provinces and 13 princely states

• 1955 to 1970 -- political tensions led to Pakistan being comprised two provinces:

  • • East Pakistan

    • West Pakistan

• East Pakistan became independent in December 16, 1971 as the new country of Bangladesh

Governments guiding economic life:

§ Gamal Abdel Nasser’s promotion of economic development in Egypt

• Led the 1952 overthrow of Egyptian monarchy

  • • President (2nd) 1956-1970

    • Suppression is Salafism

      • • banned the Muslim Brotherhood following assignation attempt

Cold War battleground

• Soviet supplied military equipment and funding for Aswan High dam

  • • He won United States and British financial backing, but in July 1956 both nations canceled the offer

      • • US learned of a secret Egyptian arms agreement with the USSR

        • Also, US had concerns regarding competition in cotton industry (USA vs Egypt)

• • • Nasser responds by nationalizing the Suez Canal

      • • 1956 (July)- Nasser nationalized the British and French-owned Suez Canal

        • Hoping (claim) to charge tolls that would pay for construction of a Aswan High dam on the Nile River

• The Suez Crisis or the Second Arab–Israeli War

  • • Israel (Oct) France and England (Nov) invade the Sinai and occupy the canal zone

      • • UN and Soviet Union opposed the war

        • USA refused to back England and France--forced to withdraw

• • • • • March 1957-following Israeli withdrawal, Egypt reopens canal

          • • 1967-1975-canal closed due to Israeli-Egyptian tension

            • 1975-Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat reopened the canal

    • USA maintained positive relationship after the Eisenhower administration (using diplomatic and economic pressure) forced England and France to withdraw from the Suez

      • • US-Egyptian relation ebbed-and-flowed based in Israeli diplomatic issues

    • Sadat sought economic modernization and an end to the Nasser era military control of the economy

      • • Resulted in closer ties to US and American aid

§ Indira Ghandi’s economic policies in India

• India's first female Prime Minister

• serving for three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term from 1980 until she was assassinated in 1984

• Policies

  • • Hostility towards the private sector starting in 1969

      • • nationalized the banks

        • nationalize the insurance sector

        • nationalization of the coal sector

    • Post 1973 Economic Policies

      • • Monopolies & Restrictive Trade Practices Act

          • • No private company could indulge in any meaningful economic or entrepreneurial activity without prior approval from the government

        • Foreign Exchange Violations Act

          • • barred Indian citizens from holding any foreign currency

        • attempted to nationalize the food grains trade

    • Green Revolution

      • • Addressing the chronic food shortages had that mainly affected the poor Sikh farmers of the Punjab region, Gandhi spurred growth through the introduction of high-yield seeds and irrigation

        • eventually producing a surplus of grains

        • increased agricultural yields for India’s eight hundred million people

        • new agricultural policies aided wealthier farmers, the masses of peasant farmers fell deeper into poverty

    • June 1975 -- the High Court of Allahabad ruled against her on charges of viol;ation of election laws

      • • she declared a state of emergency throughout India

        • imprisoned her political opponents

        • assumed emergency powers

        • Many new laws were enacted that limited personal freedoms

        • enacted large scale sterilization as a form of birth control

          • • eight million sterilization operations were performed in 1976 and 1977

        • 1984 -- Gandhi gave her generals permission to launch their "Operation Bluestar"

          • • attempt to supress Sikh nationalists

            • Hundreds of innocent people were caught in the cross fire, and at least 100 soldiers died.

• Shift in economic policy

  • • 1983 -- encouraged foreign investment in automobiles and consumer electronics

§ Julius Nyerere’s modernization in Tanzania

• 1961 -- first Prime Minister of independent Tanganyika

• 1964 -- bacame first President of the new state of Tanzania

• major force behind the Organization of African Unity (OAU; now the African Union)

• Policies:

  • • the Arusha Declaration -- Nyerere was committed to the creation of an egalitarian socialist society based on cooperative agriculture in Tanzania

    • collectivized village farmlands

    • instituted free and universal education

    • emphasized need to become economically self-sufficient

• Results:

  • • Nyerere’s socialist policies failed to spur economic development in Tanzania

    • At the time of his resignation in 1985, Tanzania was still one of the world’s poorest countries, with a per capita income of about U.S. $250

    • Agriculture remained at the subsistence level

    • country’s industrial and transportation infrastructures were chronically underdeveloped

    • One-third of the national budget was supplied by foreign aid

• Nyerere himself remained committed to socialist policies throughout his political career

§ Sirimavo Bandaranaike’s economic policies in Sri Lanka

• World's first female Prime Minister (world's first non-hereditary female head of government in modern history)

  • • elected as Prime Minister of Sri Lanka in 1960

    • served three terms: 1960-1965, 1970-1977 and 1994-2000

    • She worked and focused on improving the lives of women and girls in rural areas of Sri Lanka

• Policies:

  • • carried on her husband’s program (S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike assassinated in 1959) of socialist economic policies

      • • Her government nationalized various economic enterprises

        • after 1970 election

          • • further restricted free enterprise

            • nationalized industries

            • carried out land reforms

    • neutrality in international relations

    • active encouragement of the Buddhist religion and of the Sinhalese language and culture

      • • enforced a law making Sinhalese the sole official language

• Results:

  • • reducing inequalities of wealth

    • socialist policies caused economic stagnation

    • support of Buddhism and the Sinhalese language had helped alienate the country’s large Tamil minority

      • • mounted a major military campaign against Tamil separatists in 1995

• She was stripped of her civil rights in 1980 for abuses of power during her tenure and barred from the government for seven years

  • • 1986 she was pardoned and her rights restored

population displacement and/or resettlements

§ Israel

• Palestinians (data from 2017) in occupied Palestinian territory (The West Bank (including East Jersalem) and the Gaza Strip)

  • • Population = 4.88 million

      • • West Bank = 2.97 million

        • Gaza Strip = 1.88 million

    • Palestine refugees

      • • 43% of the population

    • Food Insecurity

      • • 47% of the population of Gaza Strip

        • 16% of the population of the West Bank

    • Unemployment

      • • 41% in the Gaza Strip

        • 16% in the West Bank

    • ISRAELI SETTLEMENTS

      • • 611,000 Israeli settlers live in 250 settlements (including outposts) in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, in contravention of international law

§ Pakistan

• In the months following August 15, 1947:

  • • 12 Million people abandoned their ancestral homes

    • 500,000+ were killed

      • • January 1948-Gandhi was assassinated by an angry Hindu refugee

    • Kashmir became a contested region

      • • Majority muslim population

        • Annexed by India due to the fact that it was the headwaters of the rivers that irrigated millions of acres of farmland in the northwestern part of the subcontinent

        • VICE on HBO Season One: Bad Borders: start at 11:35

§ Uganda

• 1972- Ugandans seek refuge in Britain after Ugandan Dictator Idi Amin expels 80,000 African-Asians, Israelis and Britons from Uganda. Many flock to Britain.

• As immigrants to Uganda from Commonwealth countries, many have British passports and in two months the UK admits 28,000 of them.

  • • This move is later largely blamed for the collapse of the Ugandan economy.

Migrations:

§ South Asians to Britain

• Kenyan Asians

  • • During the colonial era, Britain encouraged thousands of Asians to move to Kenya. After independence in 1963, many chose to keep their British passports.

    • newly independent Kenyan government introduces a law insisting ‘foreigners’ can only hold a job until a Kenyan national can be found to replace them.

      • • It becomes impossible for Kenyan Asians to work in the country, and many have to give up their homes and businesses.

        • Thousands of Kenyan Asians turn to Britain as a safe haven, emigrating to start a new life.

• Ugandan Asians

  • • 1972- Ugandans of South Asian descent seek refuge in Britain after Ugandan Dictator Idi Amin expels 80,000 African-Asians, Israelis and Britons from Uganda. Many flock to Britain.

    • As immigrants to Uganda from Commonwealth countries, many have British passports and in two months the UK admits 28,000 of them.

• Overall

  • • 1932 -- there were about 7,000 South Asians settled in the UK

    • 1961, this largely male population had grown to about 100,000

      • • Many women and children came to join them in the run up to restrictive new legislation (the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act)

    • 1960s and early 1970s also saw the arrival of Indian ‘twice migrants’ from East Africa, who came as a result of policies which prioritised native Africans in the newly independent countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda

    • 2001 UK census showed 3.9% of the population to be ‘Asian’ or ‘British Asian’ (just over 2.3 million people). This included first, second and third generation settlers

§ Algerians to France

Algerians Diaspora

• 1961-Paris police massacre more than 200 Algerians marching in the city in support of peace talks to end their country’s war of independence against France.

  • • "Ici on noie les Algériens" ("Here we drown Algerians") painted on bridges in Paris.

    • Dozens of bodies were later pulled from the Seine River

• The 2011 Census (France) recorded 465,849 Algerian-born people

§ Filipinos to the United States

• Filipino Immigrant Population in the United States, 1980-2016

  • • 1980 -- 501,000

    • 1990 -- 913,000

    • 2000 -- 1,369,000

    • 2010 -- 1,778,000

    • 2016 -- 1,942,000

• Top Concentrations by Metropolitan Area for Filipinos, 2012-16

  • • 293,000 2.2% (% Metro Pop) Los Angeles-Long Beach

    • 163,000 3.6% (% Metro Pop) San Francisco

    • 155,000 0.8% (% Metro Pop) New York-Newark

    • 101,000 3.1% (% Metro Pop) San Diego

    • 82,000 0.9% (% Metro Pop) Chicago

    • 81,000 8.2% (% Metro Pop) Honolulu

    • 71,000 3.4% (% Metro Pop) Las Vegas

    • 62,000 1.4% (% Metro Pop) Riverside, CA

    • 60,000 3.1% (% Metro Pop) San Jose

    • 48,000 0.8% (% Metro Pop) Washington-Alexandria