A variety of internal and external factors contribute to state formation, expansion, and decline. Governments maintain order through a variety of administrative institutions, policies, and procedures, and governments obtain, retain, and exercise power in different ways and for different purposes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Explain how internal and external factors contributed to change in various states after 1900.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS
KC-6.2.I The West dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century, but both land-based and maritime empires gave way to new states by the century’s end.
KC-6.2.I.A The older, land-based Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires collapsed due to a combination of internal and external factors. These changes in Russia eventually led to communist revolution.
KC-6.2.II.D States around the world challenged the existing political and social order, including the Mexican Revolution that arose as a result of political crisis.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Empires facing internal and external factors of collapse:
§ Ottoman
§ Russian
§ Qing
Political crisis challenging existing political and social order:
§ Mexican Revolution
Germany
a unified nation only since 1871
German imperial efforts were frustrated, however, by the simple fact that British and French imperialists had already carved up most of the world
German-French antagonisms and German-British rivalries went far toward shaping the international alliances that contributed to the spread of war after 1914.
French-German confrontation over Morocco in 1905
Trying to isolate the French diplomatically, the German government announced its support of Moroccan independence, which French encroachment endangered.
The French responded to German intervention by threatening war.
An international conference in Algeciras, Spain, in the following year prevented a clash of arms, but similar crises threatened the peace in subsequent years.
Ottoman empire
Ottoman Empire weakened, it began losing outlying provinces situated closest to Europe
1902–1903 -- Macedonia rebelled
1908 -- Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia.
1909 -- Crete, occupied by European “peacekeepers” since 1898, merged with Greece
1910 -- Albania became independent
1912 -- Italy conquered Libya, the Ottomans’ last foothold in Africa
Between 1912 and 1913, the states of the Balkan peninsula—including Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania—fought two consecutive wars for possession of European territories held by the Ottoman empire
The Balkan wars strained European diplomatic relations and helped shape the tense circumstances that led to the outbreak of the Great War
Austria-Hungary
1879 the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance
a defensive pact that ensured reciprocal protection from a Russian attack and neutrality in case of an attack from any other power
Fear of a hostile France motivated Germans to enter into this pact, whereas Austrians viewed it as giving them a free hand in pursuing their Balkan politics without fear of Russian intervention
Russia
suffered a loss of territory in Asia due to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
By WWI, Russia was;
the fifth largest industrial power in the world
largest oil producer
largest exporter of grain (1/2 of worlds supply of rye and 2nd largest wheat producer)
GDP equivalent to Meiji Japan
British
In 1870 Britain, the first industrial nation, produced almost 32 percent of the world’s total industrial output
by 1914 Britain’s share had dropped to 14 percent, roughly equivalent to that of Germany
Economic rivalries fomented colonial competition
Britain and Russia faced off in Persia (modern-day Iran) and Afghanistan
Britain and France in Siam (modern-day Thailand) and the Nile valley
Britain and Germany in east and southwest Africa
France
Economic rivalries fomented colonial competition
Germany and France in Morocco and west Africa.
Stagnation
until 1860, France was the wealthiest nation in the world
1914 -- GDP had fallen behind the United States, Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, at least one Scandinavian country, and several commonwealths of the British Empire.
After 1913 the Ottoman state adopted a new policy of Turkish nationalism intended to shore up the crumbling imperial edifice
The new nationalism stressed Turkish culture and traditions, which only aggravated tensions between Turkish rulers and non-Turkish subjects of the empire.
the state viewed Christian minorities as an obstacle to Turkism
Those wartime atrocities that took place principally between 1915 and 1917 have become known as Armenian genocide.
Best estimates suggest that close to a million Armenians perished.
WWI
Initial success
successfully fended off Allied forces on the beaches of Gallipoli in 1915 and in Mesopotamia in 1916
yielded to the Russians in the Caucasus
Turkish troops were unable to defend the empire against invading British armies that drew heavily on recruits from Egypt, India, Australia, and New Zealand
British armies advanced on the Ottoman state:
one entering Mesopotamia
the other advancing from the Suez Canal toward Palestine—they received significant support from an Arab revolt against the Turks
1916 -- abetted by the British, the nomadic bedouin of Arabia under the leadership of Ibn Ali Hussain, sherif of Mecca and king of the Hejaz
The motivation for the Arab revolt centered on securing independence from the Ottoman empire and subsequently creating a unified Arab nation spanning lands from Syria to Yemen
The British government did not keep its promise of Arab independence after the war
Turkish nationalists and wartime hero set out to defy the Allied terms
Mustafa Kemal organized a national army that drove out Greek, British, French, and Italian occupation forces and abolished the sultanate and replaced it with the Republic of Turkey, with Ankara as its capital.
Allied powers officially recognized the Republic of Turkey in a final peace agreement, the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
emphasized economic development and secularism
1924 -- Caliphate ended
Government support of critical industries and businesses, and other forms of state intervention in the economy designed to ensure rapid economic development, resulted in substantial long-term economic progress
policy of secularism dictated the complete separation between the existing Muslim religious establishment and the state.
replacement of religious with secular institutions of education and justice
the emancipation of women including their right to vote
adoption of European-derived law
Hindu-Arabic numerals
the Roman alphabet
and western clothing
Theoretically heading a constitutional democracy, Atatürk ruled Turkey as a virtual dictator until his death in 1938.
Working Conditions and Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905)
led to establishment of the Duma (the first parliament in Russia)
1 landowners vote equal to:
3.5 urban dweller
15 peasants
45 factory workers
Power tilted towards the nobility
Duma would establish separate military units during WWI when they lost faith in the Czar's leadership
WWI
In the first year, more than 4 million Russian soldiers had been killed, wounded or taken prisoner
September 1915- Nicholas II assumed direct control over the front.
the Csar came to be personally associated with the continuing losses at the front.
Left his wife (Czarina Alexandra) in charge of domestic affairs in St. Petersburg
estimated 9-10 million casualties
February (March) Revolution
begins as a bread riot / march on the Winters Palace
unlike in 1905 when the soldiers fired on the marchers, the soldiers joined them.
Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate
power was given to a group of elected officials called the Duma
came to be known as the Provisional Government
Stayed in the war
allowed formerly banned groups back in Russia
do not develop a plan to solve land and food issues
Lenin and the April Thesis
financially backed by the Germans, Lenin is sent by train from Switzerland (where he was exiled) to Petrograd (St. Petersburg)
Lenin’s April Theses promising: “peace, land, and bread.”
The Bolsheviks gained support from the peasants & urban workers resulting in a split in support for the Provisional Government.
July Uprising
Lenin attempts to overthrow the Provisional government
uprising fails, but Trotsky joins the Bolsheviks and with him popular support increases
October Revolution (1917)
Bolsheviks (Lenin and Trotsky) demanded an election from the Provisional Government
Bolsheviks failed to win a majority (300 out of 670 elected members)
January 1918 -- Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace when the newly elected members first met and arrested the non-Bolsheviks members in a coup d'etat.
December 1917-- Cheka established
Bolsheviks created a secret police
response to counter-revolutionaries and other political opponents
One of the first important actions taken by the Cheka was to execute the Czar and his whole family
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) Lenin conceded to Germany:
⅓ of arable land
⅓ of Russia’s factories
⅔ of Russia’s Railroads
Lenin believed the International Revolution was near and this would all be renegotiated.
Red Terror (begins September 1918)
response to the assassination attempts on Lenin
campaign of mass killings, torture, and oppression on all who opposed the Bolsheviks that took place from 1918 to 1922
Estimates for the total number of people killed during the Red Terror range from 50,000 to 140,000 to over one and half million
estimated 9-million casualties
The Red Terror coincided with the escalation of the Civil War and the implementation of a policy known as “War Communism” which lasted from June 1918 to March 1921.
Nationalization -- Nationalization is the processes a government taking ownership of a private business (sometimes called centralization)
War Communism’s chief feature was the nationalization of private businesses.
Peasants took estate lands from nobility
Nationalization of all Industry/factories
Result of "War Communism"
Capitalists pulled money (capital) and left Russia
The illegal market was supplying an estimated 65 to 70 percent of the food necessary for survival.
Goal: attempt to rebuild industry and, especially, agriculture OR Strategic Retrenchment
proclaimed a partial retreat from the policies of war communism following the Russian Civil War and combined political hardening with economic relaxation.
return of most agriculture, retail trade, and small-scale light industry to private ownership
state retained control of heavy industry, transport, banking, and foreign trade
peasantry were allowed to own and cultivate their own land, while paying taxes to the state.
Peasants could sell surplus on the open market
The NEP reintroduced a measure of stability to the economy and allowed the Soviet people to recover from years of war, civil war, and governmental mismanagement
1923-75% of all trade was in private hands
Some historians have compared this time between the Russian Civil War and the consolidation of power to the Jacobin period of the French Revolution for its radically liberal views.
Leon Trotsky in From the Old Family to the New (1923) advocated complete equality for women:
"As long as woman is chained to her housework, the care of the family, the cooking and sewing, all her chances of participation in social and political life are cut down in the extreme. "
1927 Soviet silent film Bed and Sofa (radical issues and banned in USA and Europe).
a revolution in 1911 forced the Xuantong emperor, still a child (also known as Puyi), to abdicate.
Dr. Sun Yatsen (1866–1925)
a leading opponent of the old regime, proclaimed a Chinese republic in 1912 and briefly assumed the office of president
the republic soon plunged into a state of political anarchy and economic disintegration marked by the rule of warlords, who were disaffected generals from the old imperial Chinese army, and their troops.
the central government in Beijing ran the post office and a few other services
warlords established themselves as provincial or regional rulers
neglect of irrigation projects crucial to the survival of farmers
revived the opium trade
foreign economic investment left
following WWI, China expected the U.S. government to support the termination of the treaty system and the restoration of full Chinese sovereignty
peacemakers at Versailles (1919) approved increasing Japanese interference in China.
Spearheaded by students and intellectuals in China’s urban areas
against foreign, especially Japanese, interference
pledged themselves to rid China of imperialism and reestablish national unity
Communist
1921 the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was organized in Shanghai
The anti-imperialist rhetoric of the Soviet leadership struck a responsive chord
Mao Zedong (1893–1976), a former teacher and librarian who viewed a Marxist-inspired social revolution as the cure for China’s problems, was one of the early members of the CCP.
believed in:
women’s equality
divorce
opposed arranged marriages
campaigned against the practice of foot binding
Nationalist
most prominent nationalist leader at the time, Sun Yatsen, did not share the communists’ enthusiasm for a dictatorship of the proletariat and the triumph of communism
Three Principles of the People, called for
elimination of special privileges for foreigners
national reunification
economic development
a democratic republican government based on universal suffrage
Nationalist People’s Party, or Guomindang
1923 members of the small CCP began to augment the ranks
by 1926, CCP members made up one-third of the Guomindang’s membership
Both organizations availed themselves of the assistance offered by the Soviet Union
Soviet advisors helped reorganize the Guomindang and the CCP into effective political organizations.
Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek, 1887–1975)
1925 -- took eadership of the Guomindang following the death of Sun Yatsen
a young general who had been trained in Japan and the Soviet Union
unlike the CCP, he did not hold a vision for social revolution that involved the masses of China
1927
successful Northern Expedition to unify the nation and bring China under Guomindang rule concluded
brutally and unexpectedly turned against his former communist allies, bringing the alliance of convenience between the Guomindang and the CCP to a bloody end
1928
Guomindang occupied Beijing, set up a central government in Nanjing
declared the Guomindang the official government of a unified and sovereign Chinese state
communists forced to retreated to a remote area of southeastern China
tried to reconstitute and reorganize their force
1930s
increasing Japanese aggression beginning in 1931
priority given eliminating the CCP and its Red Army
Long March (1934-1935)
No longer able to ward off the relentless attacks of nationalist forces, the communists took flight in October 1934 to avoid annihilation
Bursting through a military blockade around their bases in Jiangxi province in southeastern China, some eighty-five thousand troops and auxiliary personnel of the Red Army began the journey of 10,000 kilometers (6,215 miles).
difficult terrain and fighting for survival against hunger, disease, and Guomindang forces, the marchers arrived in a remote area of Shaanxi province in northwestern China in October 1935 and established headquarters at Yan’an
est. 90% of the CCP forces died
General Porfirio Díaz
ruled Mexico from 1876–1910
Mexico City—with paved streets, streetcar lines, electric street lighting, and public parks—became a showplace, and new telegraph and railroad lines connected cities and towns throughout Mexico
material progress benefited only a handful of well-connected businessmen
boom in railroads, agriculture, and mining at the turn of the century actually caused a decline in the average Mexican’s standard of living.
Policies:
Díaz discriminated against the nonwhite majority of Mexicans (even though he was a mestizo himself)
tried to eradicate what they saw as Mexico’s embarrassingly rustic traditions
French cuisine replaced traditional Mexican dishes
replaced sombreros and ponchos with European garments
bullfighting and cockfighting remained popular, the well-to-do preferred horse racing and soccer
foreign investors to acquire land and extracted resources
Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa against the Constitutionalists
Francisco I. Madero was the son of a wealthy landowning and mining family, educated in the United States
When minor uprisings broke out in 1911, the government collapsed and Díaz fled into exile. The Madero presidency was welcomed by some, but aroused opposition from peasant leaders like Emiliano Zapata
In 1913, after two years as president, Madero was overthrown and murdered by one of his former supporters, General Victoriano Huerta
Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), president of the United States, showed his displeasure by sending the United States Marines to occupy Veracruz
Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa against the Constitutionalists
Emiliano Zapata
Indian farmer, had led a revolt against the haciendas in the mountains of Morelos, south of Mexico City
His soldiers were peasants, some of them women, mounted on horseback and armed with pistols and rifles.
For several years they periodically came down from the mountains, burned hacienda buildings, and returned land to the Indian villages to which it had once belonged
Francisco “Pancho” Villa
from Chihuahua, a northern state where seventeen individuals owned two-fifths of the land and 95 percent of the people had no land at all
1913 -- Villa, a former ranch hand, mule driver, and bandit, organized an army of three thousand men, most of them cowboys
They too seized land from the large haciendas, not to rebuild traditional communities as in southern Mexico but to create family ranches.
Zapata and Villa were part agrarian rebels, part social revolutionaries. They enjoyed tremendous popular support but could never rise above their regional and peasant origins and lead a national revolution
Constitutionalists
Venustiano Carranza, a landowner, and in Alvaro Obregón, a schoolteacher organized private armies and succeeded in overthrowing Huerta in 1914
they represented the interests of Mexico’s middle class and industrial workers.
had fewer soldiers than Zapata and Villa; but they held the major cities, controlled the country’s exports of oil, and used the proceeds of oil sales to buy modern weapons.
gradually the Constitutionalists took over most of Mexico.
In 1919 they defeated and killed Zapata; Villa was assassinated four years later.
An estimated 2 million people lost their lives in the civil war, and much of Mexico lay in ruins.
Las soldaderas (women in the Mexican Revolution)
for many women, the conflict also offered a moment to break from traditional female roles and get out of oppressive circumstances
soldaderas played traditional roles as nurses or wives, others took up arms
The majority of soldaderas were women who traveled with their husbands or other male family members to provide domestic help as the men fought
dressed in a long peasant skirt, large straw hat and cross-bullet belt, showed as much valor as any man
those who donned male clothing and took male names often did so to protect themselves from sexual violence
high-ranking officials who resented women warriors or saw them as freaks
Amelio (born Amelia) Robles is believed to be one of the first transgender figures in Latin American history and was recognized as a veteran of the Mexican Revolution by the Ministry of War and was arguably the most respected soldadera because of the “machismo” he displayed.
at the war’s end, most had to resume their traditional roles as wives and mothers.
The Constitution of 1917
The Constitutionalists also proposed social programs designed to appeal to workers and the middle class.
promised universal suffrage and a one-term presidency
state-run education to free the poor from the hold of the Catholic Church
the end of debt peonage
restrictions on foreign ownership of property
and laws specifying minimum wages and maximum hours to protect laborers.
Most of these reforms would not be implemented until 1934 when Lázaro Cárdenas, was elected President
Lázaro Cárdena and the Mexican Revolutionary Party (PRM)
removed the generals from government positions
redistributed 44 million acres (17.6 million hectares) to peasant communes.
He closed church-run schools, replacing them with government schools.
nationalized the railroads and numerous other businesses.
1938 -- expropriation of foreign-owned oil companies (PEMEX)
Activity
1.) Use the following documents to identify continuities and change that occurred under Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal)
2.) Develop a minimum of TWO claims / categories of analysis for the following prompt.
Prompt: Evaluate the extent to which non-Western nations approaches to modernization impacted their societies during the period 1920-1939.
3.) Use evidence from at least one document to support ONE of your claims
4.) Use outside information to support the claim you are developing
Document 1
Source: Henry Elisha Allen, The Turkish Transformation: A Study in Social and Religious Development, 1935.
The first great advance in the improvement of woman’s legal status came in 1917, when the law of October 25 introduced certain innovations in the marriage provisions. . . .
In spring of 1930 the Grand National Assembly passed a law granting women the right to vote in municipal elections, and at nearly the same time a woman, Beyhan Hanum, was appointed to be a judge. But the climax in the struggle for equal rights was not reached until the end of 1934 when women were granted full rights to vote and to hold office in the National Assembly itself. Turkey had come a long way since the days twenty years ago or less when a Turkish woman who appeared on the streets without a veil was an object of police attention.
Document 2
Source: Sabiha Sertel, Resimli Ay, 1929.
The chances of unhappiness for an unmarried woman are one hundred percent. I may agree with you, society will not. I may applaud you, but they will stone you. Do you think you can live single and free like a man? That’s a bigger fantasy than your romantic dreams. People at work will always see you as a woman and focus on your sexuality. The minute you walk down the street arm-in-arm with a man you like, the neighborhood kids will stone you, the door of every house will be closed to you, and everywhere you go, people will judge you. Any man you live with will see you as simply a plaything he has temporarily made his own. Eventually the police will hound you.
Document 3
Source: Şirin Tekeli, quoted in Katharina Knaus, “Turkish Women, A Century of Change,” 2007.
The Kemalist message became ambiguous and even paradoxical: in order to glorify the maternal role, it called not just upon the well entrenched traditions, but also tried to reinforce them through speeches and ideological practices. The women who were encouraged to go beyond their traditional roles should have little ambition in their work, in order to remain one step behind the men. Femininity and altruism were therefore encouraged in women, because it was believed that women put harmony and family happiness before everything else. The woman had to sacrifice herself for her own as well as for the nation. . . .
It is therefore not wrong to say that, despite the existence of an exceptional Kemalist elite, the “Kemalist revolution” has not transformed millennial patriarchal traditions in Turkey. On the contrary, it had reproduced them while modernizing them. So, women’s main role, whatever their social environment, was still limited to the one they had in the family, as mother and wife. Almost all modern institutions, the primary and secondary schools, and particularly technical schools designed for them, aimed to produce modern housewives.
Key Takeaways
A.) The world entered the 20th century (1900s) with several land and maritime empires.
The United States
Great Britain
France
Russia
Austria-Hungary
Qing China
Ottoman
Germany
Netherlands (Dutch)
Portugal
B.) Some of these empires were on the rise while others had entered into a period of stagnation or decline.
The Three major land empires (Russia, Qing, and Ottoman) would all collapse within the first two decades of the 20th century.
C.) Competition for colonial resources and markets on the service had seemed to be settled, challenges for individual colonies continued
D.) Peasant based revolutionary movements began to see gains as the world entered the 20th century
Mexico, Russia, and eventually China
day 1
day 2
Peace, Land & Bread