Call for national unification or liberation:

§ Propaganda Movement in the Philippines

• The Propaganda Movement (1872-1892) was the first Filipino nationalist movement, led by a Filipino elite and inspired by the protonationalist activism of figures such as José Burgos (1837-1872) and by his execution at the hands of colonial authorities.

  • • José Burgos (1837-1872) -- a Filipino Catholic Priest and a leader of the secularization movement, referring to the full incorporation of Filipino priests into the Catholic hierarchy of the Philippines, then dominated by Spanish friars.

    • Burgos was arrested on false charges of sedition and incitement of the Cavite Mutiny—a mutiny of 200 Filipino soldiers and laborers in the town of Cavite—and executed in 1872

• It was an assimilationist movement

  • • believed that the Philippines should be fully incorporated into Spain as a Spanish province and not merely as a colony, with Filipinos granted the same citizenship rights accorded to Spanish citizens

    • it sought the expulsion of the Spanish friars from the Philippines and the empowerment of a native Filipino clergy

    • as a cultural movement, it showcased the writing and artistic production of the young Filipino elite as a means of demonstrating their intellectual sophistication, on par with their Spanish peers.

• The propagandists themselves were considered to be rebels at home in the Philippines, and many were exiled.

• Despite its overall failure, the movement generated a political consciousness that fed into the nationalist revolution of 1896 and the struggle for independence that followed.

§ Maori nationalism and the New Zealand wars in New Zealand

Context: Representatives of the British government encouraged Maori leaders in 1840 to sign the Treaty of Waitangi, presumably designed to place New Zealand under British protection. Interpreted differently by the British and the Maori, the treaty actually signaled the coming of official British colonial control in New Zealand (1841) and thereafter inspired effective and long-lasting Maori opposition to British attempts to usurp their land and sovereignty. Conflicts over land confiscations and disputed land sales, for example, helped to spark the New Zealand Wars, a series of military confrontations between autonomous Maori groups and British troops and settlers that extended from the mid- to the late nineteenth century.

• Māori King Movement (or Kingitanga)

  • • movement arose among a group of central North Island iwi in the 1850s as a means of attaining Māori unity to halt the alienation of land at a time of rapid population growth by European colonists

    • attempted to establish a role similar in status to that of the monarch of the British colonists, as a way of halting the alienation of Māori land

      • • allow Māori to deal with Europeans on equal footing

    • The Māori monarch operates in a non-constitutional capacity with no legal or judicial power within the New Zealand government. Reigning monarchs retain the position of paramount chief of several tribes

    • It took on the appearance of an alternative government with its own flag, newspaper, councillors, magistrates and law enforcement.

      • • was viewed by the colonial government as a challenge to the supremacy of the British Monarchy

• wars were initially localized conflicts triggered by tensions over disputed land purchases, they escalated dramatically from 1860 as the government became convinced it was facing united Māori resistance to further land sales and a refusal to acknowledge Crown sovereignty.

• Results:

  • • Large areas of land were confiscated from the Māori by the government under the New Zealand Settlements Act in 1863, purportedly as punishment for rebellion

    • land was confiscated from both "loyal" and "rebel" tribes alike

    • about half of this was subsequently paid for or returned to Māori control, it was often not returned to its original owners

    • The confiscations had a lasting impact on the social and economic development of the affected tribes

Effect:

• 1800- 200,000 Maori in New Zealand

• 1900- 45,000 Maori in New Zealand

§ Puerto Rico—writings of Lola Rodríguez de Tió

• activist against the Spanish regime, Rodríguez de Tió became a writer and book importer who often wrote articles in the local press

  • • promoted Puerto Rican liberty and democracy

• banished from Puerto Rico by the Spanish appointed Governors

  • • 1868-first exile they went to Venezuela

    • 1889-second exile to Cuba

    • 1892 banishment from Havana-they moved to New York where she helped Cuban revolutionaries

    • returned to Cuba in 1899 after the Spanish-American War

• she worked for social justice and the betterment of the condition of women in Cuba.

• well known in Cuba for her patriotic poetry about Puerto Rico and Cuba

§ German and Italian unifications

Italy

• Congress of Vienna (1815) placed much of northern Italy under Austrian rule. Southern Italy was already under close Spanish supervision because of dynastic ties between the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Spanish Bourbon monarchy.

• Count Camillo di Cavour (1810–1861), prime minister to King Vittore Emmanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia, combined forces with nationalist advocates of independence

• In alliance with France, Cavour expelled Austrian authorities from most of northern Italy in 1859.

• Cavour then turned his attention to southern Italy, where Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882), a dashing soldier of fortune and a passionate nationalist, led the unification movement

• an army of about one thousand men outfitted in distinctive red shirts, Garibaldi swept through Sicily and southern Italy, outmaneuvering government forces and attracting enthusiastic recruits

• Garibaldi delivered southern Italy into Vittore Emmanuele’s hands, and the kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia became the kingdom of Italy

• During the next decade the new monarchy absorbed several additional territories, including Venice, Rome, and their surrounding regions

Germany

• Congress of Vienna (1815) created a German Confederation composed of thirty-nine states dominated by Austria.

• Bismarck and Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”)

  • • 1862 King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), as his prime minister

    • “The great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches or majority votes—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by blood and iron.”

    • Bismarck reformed and expanded the Prussian army

    • Between 1864 and 1870 he intentionally provoked three wars—with Denmark, Austria, and France—and whipped up German sentiment against the enemies.

    • In all three conflicts Prussian forces quickly shattered their opponents, swelling German pride.

    • In 1871 the Prussian king proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Reich—meaning the Second German Empire, following the Holy Roman Empire—which embraced almost all German-speaking peoples outside Austria and Switzerland in a powerful and dynamic national state.

• Germany sometimes defined the nation in racial terms, which excluded those who did not share a common ancestry, such as Jews

§ Balkan nationalisms

Nationalist uprisings forced Ottoman rulers to recognize the independence of Balkan provinces, notably Greece (1830) and Serbia (1867)

Greeks assert their independence from the Ottoman Empire

• Philikí Etaireía -- Greek revolutionary secret society founded by merchants in Odessa in 1814 to overthrow Ottoman rule in southeastern Europe and to establish an independent Greek state

  • • claim of Russian support

    • each member swore “irreconcilable hatred against the tyrants of my country”

    • launched the revolt in the spring of 1821

• Egyptian forces sent to aid the Ottomans in 1825

  • • Greek cause saved by the intervention of the European powers

    • Navarino (1827) British destroyed the Egyptian fleet

• A Greco-Turkish settlement was finally determined by the European powers at a conference in London (1830)

  • • Greece became an independent monarchical state under British protection

Serbs assert their independence from the Ottoman Empire

• 1875-Slavic peoples in the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina led an uprising against the Ottomans to gain their freedom. Montenegro and Serbia aided the rebellion and within a year, rebellion spread to the Ottoman province of Bulgaria. The rebellion became part of a larger pan-Slavic movement

  • • Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 and annexed it in 1908.

    • 19th century-5-6 million muslims in the Balkans die or flee to Anatolian Peninsula

§ Ottomanism

• a political trend popular in the 1870s and 1880s in which loyalty to the sultan was replaced with loyalty to the Ottoman state, the fatherland (vatan).

• A single Ottoman citizenship was intended to replace religious, ethnic, and linguistic divisions among the Empire’s diverse subjects.

• Administratively, Ottomanist policies emphasized a strong central state to which all subjects were bound.

• In promoting religious equality (Tanzimat Reforms), the state assumed control over previously independent community schools with the intention of teaching a common curriculum in order to create uniform citizens, which was vehemently opposed by religious leadership.

  • • Non-Muslims and non-Turks felt threatened by efforts on the part of the state to elide their differences, which had long been preserved under the Empire by the Sultan’s hands-off policy towards loyal ethnic and religious minority groups.

    • Ottomanism unwittingly politicized ethnoreligious difference, raised minorities’ awareness of that difference, and created the conditions for proto-nationalist revolts that ultimately contributed to the erosion of the Empire.

Revolutions

§ The American Revolution

Indirect Causes:

• Salutary neglect

  • • policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, especially trade laws in the colonies during the first half of the 18th century (until 1763)

    • example: 1733-Molasses Act: forces North American colonists to buy molasses from the British sugar Islands, no longer allowed to buy from French Caribbean islands. The law was not enforced and American colonists smuggled molasses.

• The Seven Years’ War

  • • resulted in Britain amassing large debt and the British attempted to end Salutary neglect

    • expansion of the empire led to an attempt to centralize control in London (Parliament and Leadenhall Street - BEIC)

Direct Causes

Events in the American colonies

• 1764-Sugar Act: tax to help England pay off debt from the French and Indian War. It also included provisions to make the previous Molasses Act enforceable.

• 1765-Stamp Act: direct tax that required printed materials to be produced on stamped paper produced in London

  • • 9 colonies met to boycott British goods

• 1765-Sons of Liberty established to oppose new taxes

• 1767-Townshend Act: New taxes on imports of paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea.

  • • colonists boycotted and British send troops in 1768

• March 5, 1770-Boston Massacre

  • • British soldiers shot and killed 5 people while being harassed by a mob in Boston

• 1773 (May 10)-Tea Act: granted the British East India Company a monopoly and allowed them to sell their tea directly to the American colonies. It was designed to make tea cheaper for the colonists, but it undercut colonial merchants.

• 1773 (December 16)-Boston Tea Party: compelled by the Tea Act, the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians, and destroyed over 92,000 pounds of British East India Company tea in Boston.

  • • led to the Intolerable Acts

      • • Boston Harbor closed until tea repaid

        • no town meetings

        • British Troops Quartered in homes

        • Massachusetts declared, "In rebellion"

• 1775 (April 18)-outbreak of the Revolutionary War: Battles of Lexington and Concord

  • • British troops attempt to disarm rebels

    • first military engagement

§ The Haitian Revolution

Indirect Causes:

• Maroon Societies existed on St. Domingue (Haiti) with distinct culture

• French Revolution's ideals of "Men are born free and remain free and equal in rights"

• Demographics of Saint Domingue in early 1790’s

  • • White: 40,000

    • Mixed racial descent: 28,000

Direct Causes

• Vincent Oge

  • • 1/4 African; 3/4 French European descent

      • • Haitian slave owner

    • 1789: was in Paris as the National Assembly met

    • lobbied for equal rights in Paris.

    • March 1790: French Assembly passed legislation stating: “…all proprietors…ought to be active citizens"

    • Oct. 1790: Oge returns to Haiti; starts a revolt

      • • goal: give free men of color who own land the right to vote.

    • February, 1791: Oge was executed

• Maroons and Dutty Boukman

  • • Aug. 1791- Dutty Boukman led a Vodun ceremony and started a slave rebellion

    • April, 1792- French Assembly - full citizenship to all free people of color

    • Sonthonax + 6-7 thousand troops sent from France to put down rebellion

    • Feb. 1793-England at War w/ France * Jamaica = British colony

    • August, 1793 - because White colonists threaten to side with British if free people of color are given citizenship

    • Sonthonax declares freedom to slaves in North

    • Oct. 1793- Sonthonax ends all slavery in Haiti

• Toussaint L'Ouverture

  • • Feb. 1794 - Abolishment of Slavery ratified by French National Assembly

    • May, 1794 - Toussaint L'Ouverture -leader of the slave rebellion joins with French Republic

    • During this time, Toussaint L'Ouverture helps defend Saint Dominigue against the British Navy

    • 1801 - Toussaint L'Ouverture = who was Governor of Saint Domingue declares himself Governor for life

• Napoleon

  • • 1801 Napoleon sends his brother-in-law Charles LeClerc + 40,000 troops

    • 1802-1803: LeClerc betrays and captures Toussaint L'Ouverture, imprisons him in France where he dies.

    • May, 1802 - Napoleon signs a law that reinstates slavery where it was still on going

      • • Slavery still existed in: Martinique, St Lucia, Tobago. LeClerc was told to reinstate slavery in Haiti when time right.

    • Yellow Fever: killed LeClerc and killed 24,000 French soldiers, and hospitalized 8,000 more. Only 8,000 soldiers remained.

    • Summer, 1802 - Dessalines retook-up arms against French

    • May 1803- France at war with British Navy. Forced to sell Louisiana Territory for funds.

    • Rochambeau took command of French forces * defeated in Nov. 1803

    • Jan. 1, 1804 - Dessalines declares Independence for Haiti (land of the mountains)

§ Latin American independence movements

Indirect Causes:

• 1808 - Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal, deposing the Spanish king Ferdinand VII and forcing the Portuguese royal family into exile in Brazil.

  • • legitimate royal authority was gone

• race, class, and ideology would both fuel and hinder revolutionary movements in Latin America

Direct Causes

• early 1780s -- Peru

  • • An abortive rebellion of Native Americans made in the name of the last Inca emperor,Tupac Amaru

• 1810-Mexico

  • • a peasant insurrection, driven by hunger for land and by high food prices and led successively by two priests, Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos.

    • creole landowners, with the support of the Church, raised an army and crushed the insurgency.

    • Later that alliance of clergy and creole elites brought Mexico to a more socially controlled independence in 1821.

• creole sponsors of independence movements in South America

  • • Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín

    • use of nativism -- cast all of those born in the Americas—creoles, Indians, mixed-race people, free blacks—as Americanos, while the enemy was defined as those born in Spain or Portugal

      • • no easy task, because many creole whites and mestizos saw themselves as Spanish and because great differences of race, culture, and wealth separated the Americanos

    • nationalist leaders made efforts to mobilize people of color into the struggle with promises of freedom, the end of legal restrictions, and social advancement

    • these leaders were genuine liberals, who had been influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment, the French Revolution and Spanish liberalism.

      • • effect: the lower classes, Native Americans, and slaves benefited little from independence

• Simin Bolivar

  • • creole elite took up arms against Spanish rule in 1811

    • experienced many reversals and twice went into exile.

    • In 1819, however, he assembled an army that surprised and crushed the Spanish army in Colombia.

    • Later he campaigned in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru, coordinating his efforts with other creole leaders, such as José de San Martín (1778–1850) in Argentina and Bernardo O’Higgins (1778–1842) in Chile.

    • By 1825 creole forces had overcome Spanish armies and deposed Spanish rulers throughout South America.

    • Bolívar’s goal was to weld the former Spanish colonies of South America into a great confederation like the United States in North America.

    • During the 1820s independent Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador formed a republic called Gran Colombia, and Bolívar attempted to bring Peru and Bolivia (named for Bolívar himself ) into the confederation.

    • By 1830, however, strong political and regional differences had undermined Gran Colombia. As the confederation disintegrated, a bitterly disappointed Bolívar pronounced South America “ungovernable” and lamented that “those who have served the revolution have plowed the sea.”

    • Shortly after the breakup of Gran Colombia, Bolívar died of tuberculosis while en route to self-imposed exile in Europe

• Portuguese Brazil

  • • When Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807, the royal court fled Lisbon and established a government in exile in Rio de Janeiro.

    • In 1821 the king returned to Portugal, leaving his son Pedro in Brazil as regent.

    • The next year Brazilian creoles called for independence from Portugal, and Pedro agreed to their demands.

    • When the Portuguese Cortes (parliament) tried to curtail his power, Pedro declared Brazil’s independence and accepted appointment as Emperor Pedro I (reigned 1822–1834).

      • • Brazil achieved independence as a monarchy rather than a republic, creole elites dominated Brazilian society just as they did in former Spanish colonies.

Revolutionary Documents

§ American Declaration of Independence

• The document asserted “that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”

  • • This echoed John Locke’s contractual theory of government in arguing that individuals established governments to secure these rights and in holding that governments derive their power and authority from “the consent of the governed.”

    • When any government infringes upon individuals’ rights, the document continued, “it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it, and to institute new Government.”

• The Declaration of Independence presented a long list of specific abuses charged to the British crown and concluded by proclaiming the colonies “Free and Independent States” with “full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.”

§ French “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen”

• August 1789

• members of the National Assembly consulted closely with Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the American Declaration of Independence, who was the U.S. ambassador to France in 1789

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen reflects the influence of American revolutionary ideas.

• proclaimed freedom and equality for all (male) citizens

• declared that sovereignty resided in the people

• asserted individual rights to liberty, property, and security

§ Bolívar’s “Letter from Jamaica”

• In 1815, the fight for the independence of the Spanish colonies in Latin America was on the defensive.

• Simón Bolívar, a member of the Venezuelan creole class and a leading figure in the movement, was in exile.

• From the island of Jamaica, he issued a letter analyzing the current and future perspectives of the independence struggle.

• An admirer of the British parliamentary system, Bolívar argued for a balance of power in the different branches of government, although later he asserted strong executive rule while in power.

• the document analyzed the causes of the patriot movement's failure and why he hoped for ultimate success.

• examines all the errors and crimes committed by the Spaniards in America

• describes the partial success of the American armies and the development of the war, as well as the enormous sacrifices made for the cause of independence everywhere in Latin America

• Overall, the document is an analysis of the Latin Americas fundamental problems, ideas on political organization and proposals for Latin American integration