1 Introduction

1.1 Settlements before the Trojan War
Asia Minor was long under Hittite influence, with Greek settlements limited to Miletus, the area around the Xanthus River in Lycia, and the surrounding islands.

As Hittite power declined in the second half of the 13th century BC, settlements were made in Mysia from Tegea in Arcadia. [1]

Settlements were also made in Colophon from Boeotia. [2]

1.2 Settlements after the Trojan War
By the 12th century BC, the Hittite Empire collapsed, and Wilusa (Troy), a Hittite vassal state, also lost its power following the Trojan War.

After these events, Greek colonization of Asia Minor began in earnest.

The first settlers were the Achaeans, whose lands had been devastated by the Dorian invasion, and they settled in northern Asia Minor. Herodotus reports that Aeolis was more fertile than Ionia. [3]

Next, the Ionians, driven out of the Peloponnesus by the Dorian invasion, settled in central Asia Minor via Attica and Euboea.

Finally, the Dorians, fleeing famine, settled in southern Asia Minor from the Peloponnesus and Megara.

The migrations of the Achaeans and Ionians occurred multiple times.

1.3 Greek settlement

From the 16th century BC, the Greeks engaged in colonization activities throughout the coastal regions of the Anatolian peninsula. In the latter half of the 13th century BC, as Hittite power waned, the Greeks first settled the lands north and south of the Mimas Peninsula. Cities in the Aeolis and Ionia regions were also concentrated and built along the northern and southern coasts of the Mimas Peninsula.

It is thought that the land and climate of this region were well-suited to the Greeks.

2 Achaean Colonization of Aeolis (1170-1055 BC)

2.1 The Beginning of the Colonization of Aeolis

Strabo reports that the Aeolis colonization of Asia Minor began four generations earlier than the Ionians. [4]

The first colonization of Aeolis was carried out by Orestes, son of Agamemnon.

The first Ionian colonization expedition was by Neileus, son of Codrus, who set out from Prytaneum in Athens in 1073 BC.

Neileus was the son of Codrus, son of Melanthus. Melanthus and Tisamenus, son of Orestes, were contemporaries, so Orestes preceded Neileus by three generations.

Following Herodotus' calculation of three generations as 100 years, the beginning of the colonization of Aeolis is estimated to be 1170 BC. [5]

2.2 Orestes's settlement

In 1170 BC, Orestes, son of Agamemnon, led an expedition to Tenedos with Peisander of Amyclae and founded the town of Tenedos. [6]

Peisander's maternal grandfather was Melanippus, commander of the siege of Thebes. [7]

Perinthus of Epidaurus also accompanied Orestes on the expedition and founded Perinthus (not a city in Thracia). [8]

2.3 Causes of Orestes's settlement

2.3.1 Dorian Invasion

When Agamemnon died, Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, led the Dorians to attack Mycenae and destroyed it.[9]

Alternatively, Agamemnon is thought to have died in battle against the Dorians.

Agamemnon died in the 30th year of his reign, in 1173 BC.[10]

Recent archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of destruction in Mycenae in the 12th century BC. [11]

The Dorians also destroyed Tiryns and Midea. [12]

The Dorians also invaded Amyclae and Epidaurus, devastating the lands.

Aristotle reports that Mycenae became dry and barren after the Trojan War. [13]

This climate change and devastation are thought to have been the cause of the Achaeans' settlement of Asia Minor.

2.3.2 Trojan War

Peisander's settlement of Tenedos and the recapture of Ilium by Hector's sons occurred around the same time, and it is estimated as follows.

In 1186 BC, when Ilium was seized by the sons of Antenor, Hector's sons fled to the land of the Molossians accompanied by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. [14]

In 1170 BC, Hector's sons attacked Ilium and recaptured the city from the sons of Antenor. [15]

At this time, Hector's sons gathered together their kinsmen who had fled to various places. Among them were the Trojans who had fled from Tenedos to Argolis and were settled in Tenea by Agamemnon. [16]

They are believed to have participated in the capture of Ilium under the leadership of Agamemnon's son Orestes.

After the battle, some of the Trojans from Tenea returned to Tenedos.

Furthermore, Orestes had Peisander lead the dispossessed people of Amyclae in settling Tenedos.

2.4 Penthilus's settlement

After Orestes' death, his son Penthilus led a colony across to Asia Minor.

In 1126 BC, Penthilus set sail from the port of Aulis in Boeotia, captured Lesbos, and founded a colony there. [17]

Lesbos was formerly called Pelasgia and inhabited by Pelasgians led by Xanthus, son of Triopas of Argos. Later, Macareus, son of Aeolus, settled there, and Lesbos, son of Lapithus, led a colony to settle, after which the island came to be called Lesbos. Some of the Pelasgians living on the island migrated to the mainland, and the Aeolians became more numerous on the island. [18]

Cometes, son of Tisamenus, Penthilus's half-brother, also accompanied him in migrating to Aeolis. [19]

Tisamenus also once led an immigrant group consisting solely of Boeotians. [20]

2.5 Settlement of Cleues and Malaus

In 1126 BC, following Penthilus' expedition to Lesbos, the expeditionary force of Cleues and Malaus, sons of Dorus, should have followed, but they lingered long at their place of residence.[21]

They were observing the progress of the Heracleidae's return to the Peloponnesus led by Aristomachus. They departed considerably later than Penthilus. [22]

Both Cleues and Malaus were great-grandsons of Agamemnon and had lived in Locris and near Mt. Phricium. [23]

The immigrant band of Cleues and Malaus settled on the mainland opposite Lesbos, expelling the Pelasgians living in and around Larisa, and founded the Phryconian Cyme. [24]

In 1186 BC, Athenians who had fled Ilium settled in Elaea near Cyme.[25]

The Pelasgians living around Larisa were a powerful tribe led by the sons of Lethus, Pylaeus and Hippothous, but they had been weakened by the Trojan War.[26]

2.6 Settlement by Archelaus, son of Penthilus

In 1100 BC, Archelaus (or Echelas), son of Penthilus, led an Achaean colony to settle around Dascylium in northwestern Anatolia.[27]

In 680 BC, Gyges, son of Dascylus, the next Lydian king after Candaules, was from Dascylium. [28]

King Gyges of Lydia conquered the Ionian cities one after another, because the Ionians were enemies of the Achaeans. [29]

2.7 Settlement by Gras

Settlement by descendants of Orestes continued even after the return of the Heracleidae, with the Lacedaemonians supporting the colonization efforts of Gras, son of Archelaus, son of Penthilus. [30]

It is thought that among the immigrants to Aeolis were Lacedaemonians, the original inhabitants of Sparta. It seems the connection between Sparta and its colonies was maintained even after changes in leadership.

In 1055 BC, Gras, son of Archelaus, advanced as far as the Granicus River, reoccupied Lesbos, and took possession of Aeolis, located between Mysia and Ionia. [31]

2.8 Twelve Cities of Aeolis

According to the 5th-century BC historian Herodotus, the twelve cities of Aeolis were as follows:

Phryconian Cyme, Larisa, Neonteichus, Temnus, Cilla, Notium, Aegiroessa, Pitane, Aegaeae, Myrina, Gryneia, Smyrna.[32]

However, Smyrna later became a city of Ionia.

2.9 Name of Aeolis

2.9.1 Questions Regarding the Name

The name Aeolis appears to derive from the Aeolians. [33]

However, it was the descendants of Agamemnon, the Achaeans, who led the settlement of Aeolis.

The progenitor of the Achaeans was Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. [34]

Moreover, the progenitor of the Aeolians was Aeolus, son of Hellen. [35]

Thus, while the Achaeans and Aeolians were both branches of the Hellenes, the Achaeans were not a branch of the Aeolians. [36]

Why, then, was Aeolis not called Achaia?

2.9.2 Reason for the Name

It seems the region was called Aeolis because most inhabitants of its largest city, Phryconian Cyme, were Aeolians. [37]

The inhabitants of Cyme were people who had migrated from around Mount Phricium in Locris to Asia Minor. [38]

Many Aeolians lived around Mount Phricium.[39]

These were Aeolians who had fled to the area around Mount Phricium, driven out by the Thesprotians who had invaded Thessaly.[40]

Many of the Achaeans who lived in Argolis and Laconia migrated to Achaia in the northern Peloponnesus, while few Achaeans migrated to Asia Minor.

On the other hand, the Aeolians who migrated from the Phricium Mountains to Asia Minor, led by descendants of Agamemnon, and participated in the founding of Cyme were extremely numerous.

Thus, it seems that the region came to be called Aeolis because its inhabitants were predominantly Aeolians rather than Achaeans.

3 Ionian settlement of Asia Minor (1073-43 BC)

When Codrus, the 17th King of Athens, died, his eldest son Medon succeeded him. The other brothers, along with Neileus, led a colonizing expedition to find land to accept the people overflowing from Athens. [41]

The destination was the region south of Aeolis, which the Achaeans had settled after the Trojan War.

This region was inhabited by the Carians and the Leleges. [42]

The king of the Leleges was Ancaeus, son of Astypalaea, daughter of Phoenix, half-brother of Cadmus. [43]

The Leleges were Greeks who had intermarried with the Carians. [44]

3.1 Period of Ionian settlement

The Ionian settlement of Asia Minor occurred in several waves starting around 1073 BC.

Apollodorus of Athens states that 267 years elapsed between the Ionian migration and the first Olympiad (776 BC), making 1043 BC the year the Ionian migration was completed. [45]

Castor of Rhodes states that 60 years elapsed between the return of the Heracleidae and the Ionian migration. [46]

It is estimated that Tisamenus, son of Orestes of Sparta, surrendered the city to the Heracleidae in 1104 BC.

Therefore, if Castor's date is taken as the year the Ionian migration was completed, it largely aligns with Apollodorus' account. [47]

3.2 Colonial participants other than the Ionians

The majority of settlers migrating to Ionia in Asia Minor were Ionians who had long resided in northern Peloponnesus and were driven out by the Achaeans, subsequently migrating to Athens.

However, the following tribes also migrated to Asia Minor alongside the Ionians. [48]

3.2.1 Abantes

The Abantes, who joined the migration from Euboea, constituted the second largest group after the Ionians. [49]

The Abantes were originally Pelasgians residing in Argos. They came to be called Abantes after Abas, the father of Chalcodon, who migrated to Euboea from Abae, a city founded in Phocis by Abas, son of Hypermnestra, daughter of Danaus. [50]

Though ethnically unrelated, the Abantes and Ionians appear to have had close ties based on the following points:

1) Chalciope, one of the wives of Aegeus, the 9th King of Athens, was the daughter of Chalcodon, son of Abas. [51]

2) The sons of Theseus, the 10th King of Athens, sought refuge with Elephenor, son of Chalcodon. [52]

3.2.2 Minyans

In 1188 BC, Hyantes of Hyampolis in Phocis invaded Orchomenus. Driven from their city, the Minyans, led by Athamas, descendant of Athamas, son of Aeolus, migrated to Ionia and founded Teos.[53]

Some Minyans were accepted in Athens and settled in Munychia. [54]

In 1126 BC, Boeotians returned to Boeotia from Arne in Thessaly, expelled the Pelasgians from Coroneia, and annexed Orchomenus. [55]

At this time, the Minyans residing in Athens returned to Orchomenus.

However, some Minyans remained in Athens and later joined the Ionian colonizing activities.[56]

3.2.3 Cadmeians

Cadmeians led by Philotas, a descendant of Peneleus, grandfather of Damasichthon, grandfather of Xanthus, the last king of Thebes, also migrated with the Ionians. [57]

3.2.4 Other Tribes

Alongside the Ionians, the Dryopians, the Phocians excluding the Delphians, the Molossians, the Arcadians, and the Dorians, new inhabitants of Epidaurus, also participated in the migration. [58]

4 Twelve Cities of Ionia

Before being driven out by the Achaeans, the Ionians founded twelve cities along the coast of Lydia and Caria in Asia Minor, matching the number of cities they had in northern Peloponnesus. [59]

Before the Ionian settlements, the region south of Ephesus was inhabited by the Carians, while the northern region was inhabited by the Leleges. [60]

The twelve cities were Miletus, Ephesus, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Priene, Lebedus, Teos, Colophon, Myus, Phocaea, Samos, and Chios. [61]

Later, Smyrna was added. [62]

4.1 Miletus

4.1.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

4.1.1.1 The First Greeks

Ancaeus, son of Astypalaea, daughter of Phoenix, brother of Cadmus, was king of the Leleges. Ancaeus' wife Samia was daughter of the river god Maeander. [63]

In ancient times, Miletus was called Lelegeis and was the dwelling place of the Leleges.[64]

From the above, it is presumed that Ancaeus ruled Miletus, where the Maeander River flows.

The Leleges were a name given to mixed-blood people not belonging to any specific tribe.[65]

That is, the people Ancaeus ruled were mixed-blood Greeks who lived alongside the indigenous Carians.[66]

Anax, thought to be Ancaeus's grandson, succeeded his father, and Miletus was called Anactoria.[67]

4.1.1.2 Subjugation by the Hittites

In 1318 BC, the Hittite king Mursili II attacked and captured Miletus.[68]

The cause of this battle was Miletus's alliance with Uhha-Ziti, who was rebelling against the Hittites.[69]

Asterius, son of Anax, fled to an island near Lade off the coast of Miletus and died there. [70]

Cleochus, believed to be Anax's son, joined Uhha-Ziti's army.

Cleochus was later defeated in battle against Mursili II and taken prisoner by the Hittite army along with Piyama-Kurunta, son of Uhha-Ziti. [71]

Cleochus's subsequent fate is unknown, but his tomb was located at Didymaeum near Miletus. [72]

Cleochus' daughter Aria fled to Crete, where she gave birth to her son Miletus. [73]

4.1.1.3 Independence from the Hittites

In 1295 BC, Miletus, son of Aria, migrated from Crete to Asia Minor with the assistance of Sarpedon, brother of Minos, and reclaimed his grandfather's former lands.[74]

Miletus's son, married Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, deepening ties with Troy.[75]

4.1.1.4 Once again, subject to the Hittites

When Miletus died, Miletus once again became a vassal state of the Hittites.

However, Miletus's son was entrusted with Miletus by the Hittite king, despite his father having been hostile to the Hittite king. [76]

It is presumed that Miletus' son was spared because his wife was the daughter of Laomedon, King of Troy.

4.1.1.5 Trojan War Era

Achilles, son of Peleus, attacked Miletus and killed Trambelus, King of the Leleges. [77]

Trambelus' mother was Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, and he had inherited Miletus from the son of Miletus. [78]

4.1.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1073 BC, Neileus, son of Codrus, departed from the Prytaneum as an official colonizing party sent by Athens, bound for new lands. [79]

Neileus' colony consisted solely of young men, excluding women. [80]

Miletus, the settlement of Neileus, who had contested the succession to the Athenian kingship of Codrus, never became the capital of Ionia. [81]

Miletus failed to become the capital because it lay on the periphery of Ionia and its inhabitants were not Ionians. The inhabitants of Miletus were Messenians who had migrated to Athens with Melanthus, father of Codrus. [82]

Later, Thales of Miletus, the wise man, argued that Miletus should become the central city of Ionia.[83]

Philistus, son of Pasicles, who accompanied Neileus, built a temple to Ceres of Eleusis in the land of Scolopoeis near Miletus. [84]

4.2 Myus

In 1080 BC, Cydrelus (or Cyaretus), the illegitimate son of Codrus, fell out with Neileus and migrated from Miletus to land a little way up the Maeander River, founding Myus. [85]

4.3 Ephesus

4.3.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

During the Trojan War period, it was called Alope and inhabited by Carians and Leleges. [86]

Apasa, the capital of Arzawa mentioned in Hittite texts, appears to be an ancient name for Ephesus. [87]

In 1318 BC, Apasa was attacked and captured by the Hittite army, and its inhabitants were expelled. [88]

Subsequently, 1,000 slaves from Samos settled in Ephesus. [89]

In 1150 BC, Amazons led by Smyrna attacked Ephesus and burned its temple. [90]

Otrera of the Amazons built the Temple of Diana, counted among the Seven Wonders of the World. [91]

Many historical sources state that the Amazons founded Ephesus. [92]

However, none of the founders were Greeks.

4.3.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1068 BC, Androclus, son of Codrus, expelled the Carians and Leleges and founded Ephesus, which became the capital of Ionia. [93]

Later, people living in the Smyrna district of Ephesus migrated north across the Meles River and founded Smyrna. [94]

In 1053 BC, Androclus led the Ephesians to the rescue of Priene, which was under attack by the Carians. They achieved victory, but Androclus himself was killed in battle. [95]

Subsequently, conflict arose between the sons of Androclus and other Ephesians. Their adversaries countered by accepting colonists from Teos and Carine in Mysia. Consequently, the Ephesians divided into five tribes: the original Ephesians, the Bennaeans, the Euonymous, the Teians, and the Carineans. [96]

4.4 Lebedus

In 1068 BC, Andraemon, son of Codrus, expelled the Carians and founded Lebedus.[97]

Andraemon is presumed to have subsequently ruled Colophon as well, after Promethus, ruler of Colophon, killed his brother Damasichthon and moved to Naxos.[98]

4.5 Colophon

4.5.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

In 1200 BC, Rhacius, son of Lebes, led a group of migrants from Crete to the mainland coast between Chios and Samos, founding Colophon. [99]

Lebes was Mycenaean, thought to be the son of Iphitus, son of Sthenelus of Mycenae. [100]

In 1196 BC, shortly after Rhacius settled in Colophon, Boeotians captured by the Epigoni migrated there and lived alongside the Cretans. Among them was Manto (or Daphne), daughter of Tiresias, the seer of Thebes. She married Rhacius and bore him Mopsus, a seer who surpassed Calchas.

In 1186 BC, after the Trojan War, Polypoetes, son of Peirithous, and Leonteus, son of Coronus, who had joined the expedition from Thessaly, settled in Colophon instead of returning home. [102]

4.5.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1065 BC, Codrus' two sons, Damasichthon and Promethus, led the Ionians to migrate to Colophon, where the Cretans permitted them to settle. [103]

At the time of the Ionian migration, descendants of Rhacius ruled Colophon. Subsequently, either because many residents became Ionians or to join the Ionian League, Codrus' two sons came to rule Colophon. [104]

In 1060 BC, Promethus killed Damasichthon and migrated to Naxos. [105]

After Promethus died, the Colophonians welcomed his remains, brought from Naxos, into the city. [106]

Herodotus records that during the Persian Wars, Naxos was inhabited by Ionians from Athens.[107]

Ionian colonization likely extended not only into Asia Minor but also into the Aegean Sea.

In the 6th century BC, Cydippe, daughter of Ceyx, a descendant of Promethus, lived in Naxos.[108]

Around 600 BC, the Colophonian poet Mimnermus recounted that Andraemon, a native of Pylus, founded Colophon. [109]

It is likely that after Prometheus killed Damasichthon and migrated to Naxos, Andraemon, son of Codrus, ruled Colophon.

4.6 Priene

In 1060 BC, Aepytus, son of Neileus, son of Codrus, of Miletus, led the Ionians and founded Priene.[110]

In 1053 BC, Priene was attacked by the Carians. Androclus came to its aid from Ephesus and won the battle, but Androclus was killed in battle. [111]

In 1043 BC, Philotas, a descendant of Peneleus, son of Hippalcimus, led a colony from Thebes and rebuilt Priene.[112]

Bias, son of Teutames, who was listed as the foremost of the Seven Sages by the 2nd-century BC biographer Satyrus, was a descendant of these settlers.[113]

The early inhabitants of Priene included many from Helice in Achaia. The Panionium was dedicated to the Heliconian Neptune.[114]

4.7 Teos

4.7.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

In 1188 BC, some inhabitants of Orchomenus, driven out by the Thracians, migrated to Ionia under Athamas, descendant of Aeolus' son Athamas, and founded Teos. [115]

Immediately east of Teos lies Colophon, where some time ago the Boeotians, who had been taken prisoner in an attack on Thebes in the Epigoni, had settled. [116]

4.7.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1065 BC, the Ionians, led by Nauclus, the illegitimate son of Codrus, first settled in Teos.

In 1060 BC, Ionians led by Nauclus's brother Damasus and Apoecus, the great-grandson of Melanthus, and Boeotians led by Geres the Boeotian, settled in Teos. [117]

4.8 Erythrae

4.8.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

In 1260 BC, Erythrus, son of Rhadamanthus (or Rhadamanthys), led a group of immigrants from Crete and settled on the opposite shore of Chios, founding Erythrae. 

Erythrae was inhabited by the Carians, who were friendly to the Cretans, and by people who had migrated with Sarpedon and were called Lycians. [118]

The 5th-century BC historian Hellanicus states that Neileus, son of Codrus, founded Erythrae, but it seems he rebuilt an older town. [119]

4.8.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1060 BC, Cnopus, an illegitimate son of Codrus, gathered people from all the cities of Ionia and brought them to Erythrae to live together; the city was called Cnopopolis. [120]

Erythrae is also said to have been a colony of the city of the same name in Boeotia. [121]

4.9 Clazomenae

In 1050 BC, the Ionians who crossed over to Asia invited Paralus (or Parphorus) of Colophon as their leader and first built a city at the foot of Mount Ida. However, they abandoned this city and built Scyppium near Colophon. Later, they founded Clazomenae on land that was still uninhabited. [122]

Most of the Ionians in Clazomenae were Achaeans who had lived in Cleonae and Phlius in Argolis before being driven out by the Heracleidae. Since Clazomenae was a member of the Ionian League, Paralus is thought to be a descendant of Codrus. [123]

4.10 Phocaea

In 1073 BC, Euctemon's two sons, Philogenes and Damon, were sailing with the first group of immigrants led by Neileus, son of Codrus, but parted ways with Neileus en route. [124]

Philogenes and Damon led the Phocians to settle in the uninhabited lands of southern Aeolis, founding Phocaea. [125]

This land was under the rule of Cyme Phricium, founded in 1126 BC by Malaus, great-grandson of Agamemnon, who led people from the foothills of Mount Phricium in Locris. They formed an alliance based on their common homeland and were granted land. [126]

Later, Phocaeans sought admission to the Ionian League, but the condition for membership was the installation of a descendant of Codrus as king. Consequently, Phocaeans welcomed as kings the descendants of Codrus from Erythrae and Teos: Deoetes, Periclus, and Abartus. [127]

Phocaeans joined the Ionian League due to the development of its maritime trade, which created competing interests with Cyme. This is estimated to have occurred in the 9th century BC. [128]

4.11 Samos

4.11.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

In 1365 BC, Cydrolaus, son of Macareus, migrated from Lesbos to Samos.[129]

In the tale of the Argonauts' expedition in 1248 BC, Ancaeus, son of Astypalaea from Samos, appears alongside his brother Erginus of Miletus. [130]

In 1213 BC, Eurystheus's daughter Admete, priestess at the temple of Hera in Argos, migrated to Samos. [131]

4.11.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1095 BC, Procles, son of Pityreus, led people who had migrated from Epidaurus to Athens and settled in Samos, founding the city of Samos.[132]

The city of Samos was founded by Tembrion and later rebuilt by Procles.[133]

In 1087 BC, Hippasus, leader of Phlius in Argolis, fled to Samos after being driven out by the Heracleidae. The famous Pythagoras was a descendant of Hippasus. [134]

4.11.3 Exile from the Island and Return

In 1065 BC, Ephesians led by Androclus invaded the island, accusing Leogorus, son of Procles, of conspiring with the Carians against the Ionians.

Samians migrated to Samothrace, while the rest crossed to the mainland with Leogorus, settling at the burial ground of Anaea the Amazon on the opposite shore of the island and on the Mycale Peninsula.[135]

Some of the Samians who migrated to Samothrace founded Perintus on the northern shore of the Propontis Sea.[136]

In 1055 BC, Samians drove the Ephesians from the island and reclaimed it.[137]

It was after this that the Samians joined the Ionian League.

Of the four dialects of Ionia, only the Samians spoke a distinct dialect.[138]

4.12 Chios

4.12.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

In 1390 BC, the Pelasgians living in Thessaly were driven out by the Aeolians and migrated to various regions.[139]

Some Pelasgians migrated to Chios.[140]

In 1370 BC, the eldest son of Macareus, son of Aeolus, settled in Chios from Lesbos.[141]

In 480 BC, the Pelasgians of Chios were among the forces of Xerxes invading Greece. They were descendants of the Pelasgians who had migrated from the Peloponnesus to Lesbos with Macareus, and later migrated to Chios with Macareus's eldest son.[142]

In 1245 BC, Oenopion, son of Ariadne, daughter of Minos, migrated from Naxos to Chios.[143]

Oenopion's sons, Talus, Euanthes, Melas, Salagus, and Athamas, accompanied their father.[144]

In 1230 BC, Euanthes, son of Oenopion, migrated from Chios to Ismarus in Thrace.[145]

4.12.2 Migration of the Ionians

In 1060 BC, Amphiclus of Histiaea in Euboea settled in Chios. [146]

In 1020 BC, Hector, the fourth descendant of Amphiclus, expelled the Abantes and Carians from Chios and joined the Ionian League.[147]

Pausanias notes he does not understand why Hector could join the Ionian League, but it was because the people he ruled were Ionians.[148]

Amphiclus, ancestor of Hector, was brother to Ellops, who led an Athenian colony to Euboea and founded Ellopia.[149]

Ellops also brought neighboring Histiaea under his control. Amphiclus then led the townspeople and successive waves of Athenian migrants to settle on Chios.[150]

Ellops was the son of Xuthus (or Ion) and belonged to the Gephyraeans, a Phoenician tribe.[151]

In 1415 BC, when Eumolpus invaded Attica, the Athenians temporarily fled to Tanagra in Boeotia, near where the Gephyraeans lived, and were accepted by them.[152]

In 1200 BC, the Gephyraeans around Tanagra, driven out by the Boeotians, fled to Athens and were accepted as citizens.[153]

The Gephyraeans who fled to Athens were led by the sons of Astacus then Sparti, Ismarus, Leades, and Amphidicus. Ellops' father, Xuthus, was their descendant. [154]

4.12.3 Founding of Chios

After Chios joined the Ionian League, Egertius led a colony and founded the city of Chios. [155]

4.13 Smyrna

4.13.1 Before the migration of the Ionians

Herodotus relates that Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, led a colony from Smyrna to Italy. This occurred in 1318 BC, a time when Smyrna did not yet exist. [156]

The land was inhabited by the Leleges and contained the Meles River, named after the Lydian king Meles. [157]

4.13.2 Founding of Smyrna

In 1075 BC, Androclus, the legitimate son of Codrus, expelled the Carians and Leleges and founded Ephesus. [158]

Later, the inhabitants of the Smyrna district of Ephesus migrated to the north bank of the Meles River at the northern base of the Mimas Peninsula and founded Smyrna. [159]

4.13.3 Pre-Foundation State of Smyrna

Before the Trojan War, the region was inhabited by Pelasgians led by the two sons of Lethus, Pylaeus and Hippothous. [160]

In 1126 BC, Malaus, a descendant of Agamemnon, led the Aeolians, who had lived around Mount Phricius in Epicnemidian Locris, to colonize Mysia. They conquered the Pelasgians living around Larisa in the Hermus River valley and founded Cyme (Phryconian Cyme or Cyme Phriconis).[161]

The Pelasgians extended their rule as far as the Mycale Peninsula near Samos, coexisting with the Carians and Leleges.[162]

The territory occupied by the people of Cyme, who had driven out the Pelasgians, extended as far as the Meles River.

Herodotus states that the founders of Smyrna were Aeolians, but it seems he mistakenly believed the inhabitants of Cyme had founded Smyrna. [163]

4.13.4 Founding Period of Smyrna

The founding of Smyrna is estimated to have occurred around the time maritime trade flourished in Asia Minor.

Cyme is said to have begun collecting port fees 300 years after the town's founding, later than other cities. [164]

This indicates that maritime trade in Asia Minor flourished and the number of ships using ports increased before 826 BC.

As maritime trade grew, Ephesians needed to make a significant detour around the Mimas Peninsula to trade with Aeolis or the Black Sea region.

Alexander the Great attempted but failed to construct a canal at the base of the Mimas Peninsula.[165]

Consequently, the Ephesians residing at the southern base of the Mimas Peninsula founded Smyrna at its northern base.

Thus, the founding of Smyrna is estimated to have occurred in the 9th century BC, coinciding with the flourishing of maritime trade in Asia Minor.

4.13.5 Battle against Cyme

The Cymaeans, who had hitherto considered the land up to the Meles River their own, attacked Smyrna and drove out its inhabitants. The expelled Smyrnaeans took refuge in Colophon, which lay before their mother city Ephesus. Later, the Smyrnaeans, aided by the Colophonians, recaptured Smyrna. [166]

At this time, Melesigenes, son of Maion, who had migrated from Cyme and lived in Smyrna, was sent to live in Colophon as a hostage. He later became the epic poet known as Homer. [167]

4.13.6 Joining the Ionian League

Herodotus relates that Smyrna, originally founded as an Aeolian city, was captured by the Colophonians, but he seems to have known only the latter part of the sequence of events. [168]

Around 733 BC, Smyrna was destroyed by an attack from the Lydians (probably during the reign of Ardys, son of Alyattes) and remained a village thereafter.

About 400 years later, Antigonus, by order of Alexander the Great, built a new Smyrna south of the Meles River. [169]

In 688 BC, athletes from Smyrna participated in the Olympic Games.[170]

Pausanias records that Smyrna was a city of Ionia at that time.[171]

Smyrna finally joined the Ionian League, becoming the thirteenth Ionian city.[172]

5 Settlement of Caria by Dorians (1070 BC)

5.1 Outbreak of famine

In 1070 BC, a famine struck the Peloponnesus.[173]

Althaemenes, son of Ceisus, son of Temenus, led the Dorians and Pelasgians in migrating from Argos to Rhodes, where they founded Lindus, Ialysus, and Cameirus.[174]

The colonists of Althaemenes included Dorians living in Megara, which had just been built.[175]

Althaemenes' colonists also included inhabitants of Troezen led by Anthes, descendant of Aetius, son of Anthas.[176]

Anthes settled in Caria, founding Halicarnassus and Myndus.[177]

Part of Althaemenes' colonists also dispersed to Cnidus and Cos.[178]

The three Rhodian cities, along with Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Cos, came to be called the Doric Hexapolis.[179]

5.2 Scale of settlement

Part of Althaemenes' colonists also settled in Crete.[180]

The 4th-century BC historian Ephorus reports that the Dorians led by Althaemenes founded ten cities in Crete.[181]

The total number of cities settled by the Dorians, including Rhodes, Cos, and Caria, was 17.

By this time, colonizing activity from Aeolis and Ionia had largely ceased, and it seems Caria was the only remaining territory in Asia Minor suitable for Dorian colonization.

At that time, the colonization activities of Aeolis and Ionia were almost over, and the only land in Asia Minor that Dorians could colonize was Caria.

End