1 Introduction

According to Greek traditions, the Kingdom of Troy began with Teuclus's son-in-law, Dardanus, and was passed down to Erichthonius, Tros, Ilus, Laomedon, and Priam. The Trojan War is said to have occurred during Priam's reign. However, comparing information from Hittite texts with Greek tradition reveals that Ilium was the site of many battles during the establishment and development of the Kingdom of Troy.

The Hittites, who are not mentioned in Greek traditions, were heavily involved in these battles.

A careful examination of Greek traditions reveals four battles that took place in Ilium, with the Achaeans also participating from the second battle onward.

1) In 1295 BC, Laomedon, son of Ilus, was expelled from Ilium by Phaenodamas, with the help of the sons of Assaracus, son of Tros. Laomedon recaptured Ilium with the assistance of the Hittites.

2) In 1244 BC, Priam, son of Laomedon, was expelled from Ilium by the descendants of Assaracus, son of Tros, with the help of the Achaeans. Priam recaptured Ilium with the help of the Hittites.

3) In 1188 BC, Hector, son of Priam, was expelled from Ilium by the sons of Antenor. Hector tried to recapture Ilium with the help of the Achaeans but was unsuccessful.

4) In 1170 BC, Hector's sons, with the help of the Achaeans, recaptured Ilium from the possession of the sons of Antenor.

2 Pre-Battle condition

2.1 Settlement in Northwestern Anatolia

The first Greek settlements in northwestern Anatolia occurred in the 15th century BC.

In 1435 BC, a group of immigrants led by Teucrus (or Teucer), son of Idaea (or Ida, Idothea), migrated from Crete to Troad and founded Teucris (later Dardanus) near the Hellespont. [1]

At the time, the hills that would later become Ilium were inhabited by the Wilusa people, a Hittite vassal state.

In 1425 BC, Cilix, son of Agenor, migrated from Egypt via Sidon to near Mount Ida and founded Thebe. [2]

In 1420 BC, Dardanus, son of Electra, migrated from Arcadia via Samothrace to Troad and lived with Teucrus. [3]

In 1390 BC, Minos, son of Europa, migrated from Cnossus in Crete to Troad. [4]

In 1390 BC, Belus, son of Archander, led a group of immigrants from Egypt and settled near the mouth of the Aesepus River near Cyzicus. Belus's settlement was called Ethiopia. [5]

Belus's tribe was the Achaeans, who migrated from Argos to Egypt under Archander, son of Achaeus. [6]

Belus's son, Phineus, married Idaea, daughter of Dardanus. [7]

In 1380 BC, Phineus migrated to the southwestern shore of the Black Sea and founded Salmydessus. [8]

In 1350 BC, Phineus' sons migrated from Salmydessus to the Anatolian peninsula as follows: 1) Bithynus migrated to Bithynia. [9]

2) Thynus migrated to Phrygia. [10]

3) Mariandynus migrated near what later became Heraclea. [11]

4) Paphlagon (or Paphlagonus) migrated to Paphlagonia. [12]

2.2 Response of Hittite

Troad and surrounding areas, where the Greeks settled, were owned by the Hittite vassal state of Wilusa, and it is believed that there was conflict between the two.

Wilusa and the Hittites had been on friendly terms since the 17th century BC. [13]

Naturally, the Hittites would have responded to foreign invaders into their vassal territory.

However, at the time, Hittites were in the late Middle Kingdom and in a state of ongoing internal conflict and chaos.

The conflict between Wilusa and the Greeks is believed to have been minor.

2.3 Colonization to Black Sea

In 1390 BC, Aeetes, son of Sisyphus, migrated from Ephyraea (later Corinth) to Colchis on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. [14]

In 1380 BC, Phineus, son of Belus, migrated from Ethiopia to the southwestern shore of the Black Sea and founded Salmydessus. [15]

In 1370 BC, Asterios, son of Minos, son of Europa, migrated from Troad to Colchis. [16]

In 1370 BC, Cytissorus, son of Phrixus, son-in-law of Aeetes, migrated from Colchis to the southern shore of the Black Sea and founded Cytorus. [17]

In 1345 BC, Phineus' sons, Clytius and Polymedes (or Plexippus, Pandion), migrated from Salmydessus to Tauric Chersonese (present-day Crimea). [18]

2.4 Emergence of Conflict

In the 100 years since Teuclus first settled in Troad in 1435 BC, many towns were founded along Troad and in the Black Sea coast, and many Greeks settled there.

Worried about the situation, King Wilusa married his daughter to Ilus, son of Tros, son of Erichthonius, son of Dardanus. [19]

After his wife's father died, Ilus inherited the throne of Wilusa and moved to Ilium. [20]

Since son-in-law inherited the throne in lineage among Hittite kings, the Hittites recognized Ilus as king of Wilusa. Ilus, though still obligated to pay tribute to the Hittites, became allied with them. [21]

After Tros's death, Dardanus was succeeded by his son Assaracus. [22]

After Ilus succeeded the king of Wilusa, conflict arose between Assaracus and Ilus, i.e., between Dardanus and Ilium.

Ilus is believed to have succeeded to the throne of Wilusa in 1327 BC.

Kukkunni, the king of Wilusa mentioned in Hittite texts, is thought to have been the father of Ilus's wife.

2.5 Territorial Expansion to the East

Ilus expanded his territory eastward with the strong backing of the Hittites.

In 1325 BC, Ilus expelled Tantalus, who lived near Mount Ida. [23]

In 1320 BC, Ilus advanced further east into Mysia of Olympene, where he fought against Byzos of Bebryces and expanded his power. [24]

3 First Trojan War (1295 BC)

3.1 Struggle for the throne

In 1296 BC, Ilus, son of Tros, died and Laomedon succeeded him to the throne. [25]

Laomedon was the son of Ilus and the daughter of King Wilusa. Alaksandu, mentioned in Hittite texts, is presumed to be Laomedon. [26]

In 1295 BC, Laomedon was expelled from Ilium by Phaenodamas (or Hippotes). [27]

Phaenodamas was the son of Ilus and Eurydice, daughter of Adrastus, and presumed to be Laomedon's half-brother. [28]

Laomedon recaptured Ilium with the help of Hittite and Hittite vassals. [29]

Phaenodamas and his sons were defeated and killed by Laomedon. [30]

Phaenodamas' three remaining daughters fled to Sicily. [31]

In Sicily, Phaenodamas' daughter Egesta gave birth to a son named Aegestus (or Acestes). [32]

3.2 Involvement of Assaracus's sons

After Ilus succeeded him as king of Wilusa and moved from Dardanus to Ilium, Dardanus was succeeded by Ilus's half-brother, Assaracus. [33]

Priam, the son of Ilus' son Laomedon, had 47 sons. [34]

Antenor, a contemporary of Priam, had 19 sons. [35]

However, tradition cites only Laomedon for Ilus and only Capys for Assaracus. [36]

The sons of Assaracus, who live Dardanus, supported Phaenodamas and fought a fierce battle with Laomedon, in which Capys' brothers were presumably killed.

3.3 Involvement of Minos

Minos, son of Europa, and his descendant, Minos, son of Lycastus, lived in Troad. [37]

In 1297 BC, Minos married Pasiphae, daughter of Perseis, from Tauric Chersonese.

In 1294 BC, Minos' brother, Sarpedon, traveled from Miletus in Crete to Asia Minor and founded Miletus with Miletus, son of Aria. [38]

Between these two events, the Minos brothers migrated from Troad to Crete.

The reason for their migration is presumably the dispute over the succession to the throne of Wilusa.

The Minos brothers sided with Assaracus, son of Tros, in a battle against Laomedon, but were defeated and migrated to Crete. [39]

Minos was accompanied by the descendants of those who had migrated from Crete with Minos, son of Europa, as well as the Leleges, who lived in Troy. [40]

Miletus, son of Aria, who founded Miletus with Sarpedon, was the leader of the Leleges. [41]

Aria's father, Cleochus, is presumed to be the son of Anax, son of Ancaeus, king of Leleges. [42]

3.4 Involvement of Ethiopians

The Ethiopians, led by Perses, son of Perseus, sided with Assaracus, son of Tros, in a battle against Laomedon, but were defeated.

Laomedon attacked Ethiopia near the mouth of the Aesepus River and brought it under Troy's control. [43]

The Ethiopians were then ruled by Tithonus, son of Laomedon, and Memnon, son of Tithonus. [44]

4 Second Trojan War (1244 BC)

4.1 Expulsion of Priam

In 1244 BC, Ilus' son Laomedon died, and his son Priam (or Podarces) succeeded him as king of Wilusa. [45]

In Hittite texts, Priam appears as Walmu. [46]

The descendants of Assaracus, son of Tros, expelled Priam and occupied Ilium. [47]

They installed Aegestus, grandson of Phaenodamas, as king, having been summoned from Sicily. [48]

4.2 Descendants of Assaracus who exiled Priam

Assaracus remained in Dardanus with his father Tros when his half-brother Ilus succeeded king of Wilusa and moved to Ilium. [49]

Of Assaracus's sons, only Capys appears in the legends. [50]

The descendants of Assaracus, who expelled Priam and occupied Ilium, were the following people.

1) Aesyetes and his sons, Antenor and Alcathous.

Antenor was the son of Aesyetes. [51]

Antenor ruled Dardania. [52]

From these facts, Aesyetes is presumed to be the son of Capys, the son of Assaracus, who lived in Dardania.

2) Anchises, son of Capys.

Anchises was Assaracus' grandson and lived in Dardania. [Apo. 3.12.2, Dictys. 4.22

Diod. 4.75.5, Ovid. 4.19]

3) Laocoon, son of Capys, and his sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus.

Laocoon was a priest of Apollo. [53]

4.3 Achaeans who assisted the descendants of Assaracus

4.3.1 Protesilaus and Podarces, sons of Iphiclus

Mestra's father, Erysichthon (or Aethon), lived near Dotium in Thessaly. [54]

Protesilaus, son of Iphiclus, who lived in Phylace near Dotium, was married to Laodamia, daughter of Acastus of Iolcus, where the Minyans, who knew the route to the Black Sea, lived. [55]

Iphiclus' mother, Clymene, was the daughter of Minyas, and the Minyans who migrated with Clymene also lived in Phylace. [56]

Protesilaus and Podarces are thought to have traded with the Black Sea coast via the Hellespont.

4.3.2 Philoctetes, son of Poeas

Philoctetes, who lived in Meliboea in Magnesia facing the Aegean Sea, is also believed to have traded through the Hellespontus. [57]

Meliboea was a source of purple dye shells. [58]

4.3.3 Heracles, son of Amphitryon

There are many legends about Heracles's campaign against Troy. [59]

One legend states that Heracles captured Ilium between his return from Lydia to Tiryns and his attack on Elis. [60]

In other words, Heracles' campaign against Troy occurred between 1246 and 1243 BC.

This coincides with the time of the Priam succession dispute.

Ethiopia, under the rule of Laomedon, was the birthplace of Perseus' wife, Andromeda, and the home of Perseus' son, Perses. [61]

Perses was the brother of Alcaeus, father of Heracles' father, Amphitryon. [62]

Heracles is believed to have campaigned against Troy with the Achaeans living in Thessaly.

Apollodorus records that Priam became king after Heracles captured Ilium. [63]

Heracles' half-brother Iphicles and his son Iolaus likely accompanied Heracles on his expedition to Troy. [64]

4.3.4 Telamon, son of Aeacus

Telamon appears in the legend of Heracles' expedition to Troy. [65]

Based on the following, it is assumed that Telamon had connections with the descendants of Assaracus through the use of the Hellespont and accompanied Heracles on his expedition to Troy.

Telamon lived in Salamis, where the Salaminians were superior navigators to the Athenians. [66]

Telamon's son Teucer emigrated to Cyprus to mine or trade copper. [67]

Telamon's wife, Periboea, was the sister of Automedusa, the wife of Heracles' half-brother, Iphicles. [68]

Thus, Telamon was Heracles' brother-in-law through his wife.

4.3.5 Oecles, son of Mantius

Oecles appears in the legend of Heracles's expedition to Troy. [69]

Oecles had just returned to Argos from his exile in Aetolia. [70]

Eurystheus of Mycenae is thought to have assisted Oecles in his return, and later, Oecles participated in the attack on Elis that Eurystheus ordered Heracles to take. [71]

Due to his relationship with Eurystheus, Oecles is presumed to have participated in the expedition with Heracles.

4.3.6 Peleus, son of Aeacus

Peleus appears in the legend of Heracles' expedition to Troy. [72]

The following suggests that Peleus also participated in the expedition to Troy:

1) Phylace, where Protesilaus and Podarces lived, was near Phthia, where Peleus lived.

2) Peleus' son, Achilles, participated in the next expedition to Troy.

3) Peleus was the brother of Telamon, who participated in the expedition from Salamis.

After Autolycus, son of Deimachus, migrated from Tricca in Thessaly to Sinope on the southern coast of the Black Sea in 1260 BC, the number of ships passing through the Hellespont increased. [73]

Autolycus' wife was Mestra, daughter of Erysichthon, son of Myrmidon, who lived in Phthia. [74]

The people who accompanied Mestra to Tricca from Phthia migrated to Sinope with Autolycus. There is likely trade between Phthia and Sinope.

4.3.7 Nestor, son of Neleus

Nestor appears in the legend of Heracles' expedition to Troy. [75]

The following suggests that Nestor also participated in the Troy expedition:

1) Minyans, who accompanied Neleus' wife Chloris, lived near Nestor. [76]

The Minyans were people who knew the sea routes around the Black Sea.

2) Nestor's son Antilochus participated in the next Troy expedition.

3) Neleus was from Iolcus, which traded with the Black Sea.

4.4 Priam's recapture of Ilium

Priam fled to Miletus, seeking refuge with his sister Hesione, who lived there. [77]

The Hittite king requested Hesione's husband to hand Priam over to the Hittites so that he could be installed as king of Wilusa. [78]

At the time, Miletus was a Hittite vassal state, and as requested by the Hittite king, Priam was handed over to the Hittites. Priam marched with a Hittite army to Ilium to reclaim the throne. [79]

Ilium was attacked by the Hittites and their vassals.

Aesyetes' sons Antenor, Anchises, and Aegestus, as well as Protesilaus and Philoctetes, fled Ilium, and Priam recaptured it. [80]

Greek tradition tells us that Hesione rescued Priam, who was called Podarces. [81]

Priam also took control of Dardania, where Antenor lived. [82]

As a result, the region known as Troy, named after Tros, came to be identified with Wilusa.

4.5 Whereabouts of the Defeated

4.5.1 Aegestus, son of Egesta

Aegestus returned to Sicily. [83]

Aegestus was accompanied by Anchises, son of Capys, and Anchises' son, Elymus and Philoctetes. [84]

Aegestus founded Aegesta (or Egesta) in the northwest of Sicily. [85]

4.5.2 Aesyetes, son of Capys

Aesyetes was killed in battle against Priam's forces on a plain about 1 km south of Ilium. [86]

Aesyetes was Capys' eldest son and likely commander-in-chief.

The sons of Aesyetes' son, Antenor, played leading roles in subsequent battles. [87]

4.5.3 Antenor, son of Aesyetes

Antenor's wife, Theano, was the daughter of Cisseus, son of Mygdon, who lived in Mysia at Olympene. [88]

During the next Trojan War, Antenor and Theano's son, Iphidamas, lived in Macedonia. [89]

Tradition has it that Antenor founded Patavium (later Padua) deep in the Adriatic Sea. [90]

However, it is believed that Antenor emigrated to Paeonia with his wife's grandfather, Mygdon.

4.5.4 Anchises, son of Capys

Anchises fled to Sicily with his son Elymus and Aegestus. [91]

Aegestus and Anchises were accompanied by many people from the Scamander River basin. [92]

At this time, Aeneas, son of Anchises, one of the main characters in Homer's Iliad, had not yet been born. [93]

Aeneas was born in Sicily.

4.5.5 Elymus, son of Anchises

Elymus traveled from Troad to Sicily with Philoctetes and Aegestus. [94]

On the way, Elymus and Philoctetes settled in southern Italian peninsula. [95]

The people who settled with Elymus came to be called Elymians. [96]

In 1240 BC, Elymus migrated to Sicily, driven by the Oenotrians, who had long inhabited the southern part of the Italian peninsula. [97]

Elymus founded Elyma (or Eryx) in the northwestern part of Sicily. [98]

4.5.6 Laocoon, son of Capys

Laocoon, son of Capys, is presumed to have died in battle against Priam, along with his sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus. [99]

4.5.7 Protesilaus, son of Iphiclus

Protesilaus was killed in battle and buried in Elaesus (or Eleus) in Thracian Chersonesus. [100]

According to legend, Protesilaus campaigned against Troy with Agamemnon. [101]

However, Protesilaus was the son of Iphiclus, the brother of Jason's mother Alcimede, and was a contemporary of Jason. [102]

Ilus, the son of Mermerus, son of Jason, was a contemporary of Odysseus. [103]

In other words, Agamemnon was of the generation following Protesilaus's grandson.

The battle in which Protesilaus participated was the Second Trojan War, not the Third Trojan War during Agamemnon's reign.

4.5.8 Philoctetes, son of Poeas

Philoctetes, accompanied by Aegestus, traveled to Sicily with Anchises. [104]

Philoctetes separated from them in southern Italian peninsula and settled in Macalla, Croton. [105]

Philoctetes founded Petelia in Croton. [106]

According to legend, Philoctetes, like Protesilaus, accompanied Agamemnon on his expedition to Troy.

However, Philoctetes was acting in concert with Aegestus the Trojan, who was an enemy in the story.

4.5.9 Mygdon, son of Otreus

Mygdon, who lived in Mysia of Olympene, sided with Antenor and was driven from his home and settled in Paeonia. [108]

Mygdon was the father of Cissus, the father of Antenor's wife Theano. [109]

5 Third Trojan War (1188 - 1186 BC)

According to legend, the Achaeans under Agamemnon captured Troy, and Neoptolemus, along with Priam's son Helenus and Hector's sons, emigrated to the land of the Molossians. [110]

However, the following historical sources suggest that the Achaeans failed to capture Troy:

1) The 5th-century theologian Jerome writes that "after the expulsion of Antenor's sons, Hector's sons recaptured Ilium, and Helenus assisted them." [111]

2) Dictys of Crete, at the end of Book 5 of his account of the Trojan War, writes that it was Antenor who ultimately seized Ilium. [112]

3) Herodotus writes that a disastrous event comparable to the Persian invasion of Greece occurred 20 generations before Darius. [113]

Herodotus counts three generations as 100 years, so this event occurred 667 years before Darius. [114]

If we take Darius' accession to the throne in 522 BC as the base year, this tragic event would have occurred around 1189 BC.

From the above, it can be assumed that the Achaeans fought on Hector's side but were defeated.

Hector died, and his wife and sons fled with his brothers Helenus and Neoptolemus.

Neoptolemus fought against the sons of Antenor, not the sons of Priam.

5.1 Changes in Hellespont Rulers

After Ilus, son of Tros, moved to Ilium, Dardanus was inhabited by Assaracus, Ilus's half-brother. [115]

During the reign of Laomedon, Antenor lived in Dardanus in Dardania and ruled the Hellespont. [116]

However, after Laomedon's death, a dispute arose over the throne, and Dardania, without Antenor's family, came under the control of Ilium, where Priam lived. [117]

Priam's family ruled the towns near the Hellespont as follows:

1) Abydus was ruled by Democoon, son of Priam. [118]

2) Arisbe, Practius, and Sestus in Thracian Chersonesus, across from Abydus, were ruled by Asius, son of Arisbe, Priam's wife. [119]

3) Percote was ruled by Melanippus, son of Priam's brother Hicetaon. [120]

4) Thracian Chersonesus was ruled by Polymestor (or Polymnestor), husband of Priam's daughter Iliona. [121]

Homer does not mention Dardanus by name. It is likely that Priam defeated Dardanus after recapturing Ilium in 1244 BC. However, Dardanus was later rebuilt. [122]

After Priam recaptured Ilium, Priam, not Antenor, became the ruler of the Hellespont.

5.2 Base of Rebellion

The base of Antenor's sons' rebellion was Paeonia and Macedonia.

These were the homes of the descendants of Antenor and Mygdon, who had been driven from Troad 56 years earlier.

The story of the Troy expedition mentions the following people from Paeonia and Macedonia marching against Troy:

1) Iphidamas, son of Antenor [123]

2) Pyraechmes, son of Axius, son of Mygdon [124]

3) Asteropaeus, son of Pelegon, son of Axius, son of Mygdon [125]

4) Rhesus, son of Eioneus (or Eion), son of Bisaltes, son of Mygdon [126]

According to legend, they marched against Troy as reinforcements for Hector, son of Priam. However, in reality, they were Hector's enemies.

5.3 Battle of Ilium

After Priam's death in 1188 BC, Antenor's sons occupied Ilium and usurped the throne.

By this time, the Hittites, who had supported Priam in his struggle for the throne, were on the verge of extinction. [127]

Priam's eldest son, Hector, who had been driven out of Ilium, sought reinforcements from the Achaeans, with whom he had friendly relations through the Hellespont.

The Achaeans organized an expedition to support Hector and marched against Troy.

The commander-in-chief of the Achaeans was Achilles, son of Peleus, and the main force consisted of troops from Thessaly and Boeotia.

5.4 Outcome of the Battle

Hector, Achilles, Patroclus son of Menoetius, Ajax son of Oileus, Ajax son of Telamon, and Antilochus son of Nestor were killed in the battle.

In 1186 BC, the Achaeans received news that Thessaly had been occupied by the Thesprotians. Having lost their commander-in-chief, Achilles, the Achaeans abandoned their plan to capture Ilium. [128]

5.5 Commander-in-Chief Achilles

Achilles, son of Peleus, is presumed to have led the Achaeans to Troy as commander-in-chief.

It is thought that people outside Thessaly followed Achilles because he was the step-nephew of Heracles. Iphicles, the husband of Automedusa, the sister of Periboea, the wife of Telamon, the brother of Achilles' father Peleus, was Heracles' half-brother.

5.5.1 Use of the Hellespont

The following suggests that Achilles traded with the Black Sea coast through the Hellespont.

1) Iolcus, famous for the Argonauts' expedition, was a prosperous city that traded with the Black Sea coast. [129]

Iolcus was destroyed by the Minyans, and Peleus expelled them. [130]

Peleus is presumed to have inherited Iolcus's trade. [131]

2) There were shrines and islands in the Black Sea associated with Achilles.

There was an island in the Black Sea dedicated to Achilles. [132]

On the northern shore of the Black Sea, there was a peninsula named the Course of Achilles. [133]

At the entrance to Lake Maeotis (Sea of Azov) from the Black Sea was Achilleium, where the sanctuary of Achilles was located. [134]

5.5.2 The most powerful man in Thessaly

In 1236 BC, the prosperous city of Iolcus was destroyed. [135]

In 1227 BC, Lapiths, who had risen to power in place of Iolcus, was weakened in a battle with Heracles. [136]

In 1223 BC, Heracles died. [137]

By the time Achilles reached adulthood, he, the leader of the Myrmidons, had become the most powerful man in Thessaly.

5.5.3 Death of Achilles

Achilles was killed in battle against the sons of Antenor and buried in Sigeion. [138]

5.6 Achaeans in the Trojan Expedition

The Trojan Expedition was attended by Achaeans who had connections with the commander-in-chief, Achilles, or who had ties to the sons of Priam through the use of the Hellespont.

5.6.1 Neoptolemus, son of Achilles

According to tradition, Neoptolemus was summoned to Troy after the death of Achilles. [139]

However, a genealogy suggests that Neoptolemus was 24 years old at the time of the expedition, and that he accompanied his father, Achilles, on the expedition to Troy.

After Achilles and Hector were killed in battle, the defeated Achaeans migrated to various places.

Neoptolemus fled Troad with Priam's son Helenus, Hector's wife Andromache, and Hector's sons, and settled in the land of the Molossians. [140]

5.6.2 Phoenix, son of Amyntor

Phoenix led the Dolopians in the expedition. [141]

Phoenix was Achilles' foster father. [142]

Phoenix died near Thermopylae on his way to the Molossian lands with Neoptolemus. [143]

5.6.3 Polypoetes, son of Peirithous

Polypoetes joined the Trojan expedition from Gyrton. [144]

Polypoetes fled from the Trojans to Ionia and settled in Colophon. [145]

5.6.4 Leonteus, son of Coronus

Leonteus joined the Trojan expedition from Argis. [146]

Leonteus fled from Troad to Ionia and settled in Colophon. [147]

5.6.5 Eurypylus, son of Euaemon

Eurypylus joined the expedition to Troy from Ormenion. [148]

Eurypylus fled from Troad to Achaia and settled in Patrae. [149]

5.6.6 Podalirus, son of Asclepius

Podalirus (or Podalirius) participated in the Trojan expedition from Tricca. [150]

Podalirus fled from Troad to Caria and founded Syrnus. [151]

The story of the Trojan expedition mentions his brother, Machaon. [152]

However, the following suggests that Machaon did not participate in the expedition:

1) Traditions differ regarding who killed Machaon. [153]

2) Nestor is said to have brought back Machaon's remains. [154]

However, it is unlikely that Nestor would have brought back Machaon's remains without also bringing back the remains of his own son, Antilochus.

3) Podalirius's children are unknown, but Machaon had five sons, if only sons.

5.6.7 Arcesilaus, son of Archilycus

Arcesilaus led the Boeotians on an expedition from Boeotia to Troy. [155]

Leitus, son of Lacritus, brought back Arcesilaus's remains and buried them in Lebadeia. [156]

Arcesilaus was related to Achilles through Arne of Thessaly.

5.6.8 Ialmenus, son of Astyoche

Ialmenus, son of Astyoche (or Pernis) of Orchomenus, led the Minyans and Aspledonians in the expedition to Troy. [157]

Ialmenus fled from Troad to the northern shore of the Black Sea and settled in the land of Sauromatae. [158]

The Minyans had ancient ties to Colchis on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. [159]

Ialmenus's mother, Astyoche, was the daughter of Actor, son of Azeus, son of Clymenus, son of Presbon. [160]

Presbon, born in Colchis, emigrated to Boeotia and succeeded his grandfather, Athamas. [161]

Perses and Aeetes, the two sons of Perseis (or Perse), granddaughter of Phrixus, father of Presbon, ruled the Tauric Chersonese and Colchis. [162]

The husband of Circe, daughter of Perses' daughter Hecate (or Idyia), ruled the Sauromatians. [163]

From these facts, it is presumed that Ialmenus had been on friendly terms with Priam's sons before the campaign, using the Hellespont for trade with the Black Sea.

Homer lists the wealth of Orchomenus alongside that of Thebes in Egypt, and it is likely that part of that wealth came from trade with the Black Sea. [164]

5.6.9 Ajax, son of Telamon

5.6.9.1 Ajax's participation in the expedition

Ajax participated in the expedition to Troy from Megara. [165]

Telamon was the brother of Achilles' father, Peleus, and Ajax was Achilles' cousin. [166]

Ajax's participation in the expedition likely stemmed not only from his relationship with Achilles but also from his friendship with the sons of Priam through his use of the Hellespont.

The Salamians, led by Ajax, were skilled in navigation. [167]

5.6.9.2 Sons of Ajax

Ajax had two sons born to women captured during the expedition.

1) Aeantides

Aeantides was the son of Ajax and Glauce, daughter of Cycnus (or Cygnus), who had been captured during a battle with Cycnus at Colonnae, south of Ilium. [168]

Aeantides later became the progenitor of the Aeantis and lived near Marathon. [169]

2) Eurysaces

Ajax fought against Teuthras of Phrygia and captured his daughter Tecmessa. [170]

Ajax and Tecmessa had a son, Eurysaces. [171]

Eurysaces lived in Melite, Attica, where the sanctuary of Eurysaces was located. [172]

5.6.9.3 Tomb of Ajax

Strabo records that Ajax's tomb was in Rhoeteium, but like Achilles, Patroclus, and Antilochus, Ajax was buried in Sigeion. [173]

5.6.10 Teucer, son of Telamon

Teucer, son of Telamon, emigrated to Cyprus before the Trojan War. [174]

Teucer married Eune, daughter of Cinyras of Palaepaphos. [175]

Teucer's purpose in emigrated was to trade in the precious minerals mined by Amathus in Cyprus. Cinyras's mother was Amathus's godmother. [176]

Teucer rushed from Cyprus to Ilium to aid his brother Ajax, but only after Ajax's death and the outcome of the war had already been decided. [177]

Teucer returned to Cyprus, bringing with him the Trojans who wished to emigrate, and founded Salamis. [178]

5.6.11 Calchas, son of Thestor

Calchas lived in Megara and accompanied Ajax, king of Megara, on his expedition to Troy. [179]

Calchas fled from Troad to Pamphylia and founded Selge. [180]

In the 4th century BC, the inhabitants of Selge became trusted allies of Alexander the Great. [181]

Strabo also states that the Lacedaemonians founded Selge after Calchas. [182]

At the time, Sparta was an enemy of Alexander the Great, and many of Selge's inhabitants likely had ties to Calchas's ancestral city of Argos.

5.6.12 Ajax, son of Oileus

Pausanias records a legend related to Leuce (modern Zmiinyi, Snake Island) in the Black Sea. [183]

In that tradition, besides Achilles and Ajax, son of Telamon, Ajax, son of Oileus, Patroclus, and Antilochus, son of Nestor also appears.

All but Ajax, son of Oileus, are buried in Troad. [184]

According to legend, Ajax, son of Oileus, drowned near Delos. [185]

In fact, Ajax, son of Oileus, also died in Troy and, like Achilles, may have been involved in trade with the Black Sea coast.

Ajax, son of Oileus, lived in Narycus in the Epicnemidian Locris and ruled over the Opuntians. [186]

5.6.13 Patroclus, son of Menoetius

Patroclus lived in Opus of Epicnemidian Locris, under the rule of Ajax, son of Oileus. [187]

Patroclus accompanied Ajax, son of Oileus, on an expedition to Troy.

Patroclus died in Troy and was buried in Sigeion. [188]

5.6.14 Antilochus, son of Nestor

5.6.14.1 Antilochus's participation in the expedition

When Nestor's father, Neleus, married Chloris, daughter of Amphion of Orchomenus, many Minyans accompanied Chloris to the area. [189]

Neleus' son, Nestor, also married Eurydice (or Anaxibia), daughter of Clymenus, from Orchomenus, and Minyans also lived in Pylus. [190]

The Minyans knew the sea route to Colchis on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and it is likely that Pylus also traded with the Black Sea region.

Antilochus died in Troy. [191]

Antilochus' tomb was located near the tombs of Achilles and Patroclus in Sigeion. [192]

5.6.14.2 Nestor's non-participation in the expedition

According to legend, Nestor also participated in the expedition to Troy and returned with the remains of Machaon, son of Asclepius, who died in Troy. [193]

However, it is unlikely that Nestor would have returned with the remains of Machaon without also bringing back the remains of his own son, Antilochus, and thus it is unlikely that Nestor traveled to Troy.

Based on a genealogy, Nestor would have been 74 years old at the time.

After Alexander the Great's death, there is evidence that Antipater, around 80 years old, traveled back and forth between Macedonia and Egypt by horseback. However, given the average life expectancy at the time, it is unlikely that Nestor survived.

5.6.15 Argives

5.6.15.1 Diomedes, son of Tydeus

Pausanias reports that Diomedes led the Argives in an expedition to Troy in place of Cyanippus, son of Aegialeus, who was still a child. [194]

Cyanippus was the son of Diomedes' sister, Comaetho, and Diomedes' nephew. [195]

This is likely based on historical fact, rather than the author of the Trojan expedition adding Diomedes as a celebrity of the time.

After returning from Troad to Argos, Diomedes migrated to the Italian peninsula via Aetolia. [196]

5.6.15.2 Sthenelus and Euryalus

In Homer's Iliad, the leaders of the Argives, in addition to Diomedes, were Sthenelus, son of Capaneus, and Euryalus, son of Mecisteus. [197]

Sthenelus belonged to the Anaxagoridae, while Euryalus and Diomedes belonged to the Biantidae.

The other of the three royal families of Argos, the Melampodidae, did not participate in the Trojan War.

The names of the Argives' leaders reflect the state of affairs in Argos at the time and are likely based on historical fact.

The Melampodidae, led by Amphilochus, son of Amphiaraus, migrated to northwestern Greece and did not reside in Argos during the Trojan War. [198]

5.6.16 Palamedes, son of Nauplius

The 3rd-century AD writer Philostratus reports that the tomb of Palamedes was located in Methymna in Lesbos. [199]

Methymna was home to Hypsipylus, son of Antenor, who was killed in battle with Achilles. [200]

Palamedes is believed to have participated in the Trojan campaign, attacked Methymna alongside Achilles, and died in battle with Hypsipylus. [201]

5.6.17 Meges, son of Phyleus

In Homer's Iliad, Meges is listed as having participated in the campaign from Echinades. [202]

Meges' subordinate was Otus, who commanded the Epeans living in Cyllene in Eleia. [203]

Meges's father, Phyleus, was the son of Augeas of Elis, so it is not surprising that the Epeans of Cyllene were under Meges' command.

This is consistent with the actual circumstances of the time, and Meges's participation in the Troy expedition appears to be based on historical fact.

5.6.18 Arcadians

5.6.18.1 Agapenor, son of Ancaeus

According to legend, Agapenor, leader of the Arcadians, traveled from Troad to Cyprus and founded Paphos. [204]

Another legend states that Agapenor went to Cyprus to mine copper. [205]

Laodice, the mother of Pereus, father of Neaera, mother of Lycurgus, father of Agapenor's father Ancaeus, was the daughter of Cinyras, the founder of Palaepaphos in Cyprus. [206]

Cinyras, descendant of Cinyras, and father of Eune, wife of Teucer, son of Telamon, was a wealthy man comparable to King Midas. [207]

Cinyras's wealth came from the copper mined in the city named after his mother, Amathus. [208]

Agapenor is believed to have led the Arcadians in the Achaean expedition to Troy, where he fought, and then traveled to Cyprus, with which they had long had trade relations.

5.6.18.2 Mantineans

The Mantineans, who participated in the expedition as part of the Arcadians, fled from Troad to Bithynia and settled near Bithynium. [209]

5.6.19 Athenians

5.6.19.1 Menestheus's non-participation in the expedition

According to legend, King Menestheus of Athens led the Athenians in an expedition against Troy. [210]

However, as with Agamemnon of Mycenae, Athens' rule was not secure.

Menestheus was in danger of being attacked by the sons of Theseus, whose throne he had usurped. In fact, Menestheus's kingship of the Athenians was usurped by Theseus' son Demophon, who returned from Euboea.

The return of Theseus' sons was aided by Elephenor, son of Chalcodon, who is believed to have died in battle with Menestheus. [211]

Menestheus fled from Athens to Melos, where he died. [212]

5.6.19.2 Athenians, participating in the Expedition

Although Menestheus himself did not participate in the Troy expedition, some Athenians likely did.

There was a sea route from Sinope on the southern coast of the Black Sea to Prasiae in Attica. This route was part of the route used by the Hyperboreans to transport first fruits to Delos. [213]

The Athenians also used this route to trade with the Black Sea coast and are believed to have used the Hellespont to establish ties with the sons of Priam.

After Menestheus was expelled from Athens, some Athenians were unable to return to Athens and fled to southern Italian peninsula, settling in Scylletium. [214]

Some Athenians also fled to Mysia and settled in Elaea. [215]

Mysia was inhabited by Arcadians who had migrated from Arcadia. [216]

5.6.20 Mycenaeans

5.6.20.1 Agamemnon's non-participation in the expedition

According to legend, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, led an expedition against Troy as commander-in-chief of the Achaeans.

However, the following accounts suggest that Agamemnon did not actually lead an expedition to Troy.

1) There are significant inconsistencies in the legends.

Some traditions state that Agamemnon's reign lasted 30 or 35 years, with the Trojan War ending in his 18th year of reign. [217]

This contradicts the legend that Agamemnon was killed immediately after returning from Troy. 

2) A long expedition was impossible.

After the death of Eurystheus, the Heracleidae twice attempted to return to the Peloponnesus. The Heracleidae continued to seek opportunities to invade the Peloponnesus. [218]

In fact, in the year Agamemnon died, Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, led the Dorians in an attack on Mycenae and destroyed the city. [219]

Under these circumstances, it was impossible for Agamemnon to lead an army from Mycenae on a long-term expedition.

5.6.20.2 Mycenaeans, participating in the expedition

Pausanias records that Agamemnon settled the inhabitants of Tenedos in Tenea (or Genea) in Argolis. [220]

Although Agamemnon himself likely did not march to Troy, it is likely that some Mycenaeans participated in the expedition. It is likely that the Mycenaeans brought the inhabitants of Tenedos, who had fought on Hector's side, to Peloponnesus while fleeing Troad, and Agamemnon settled them in Tenea.

5.6.21 Magnesians

The Magnesians of Thessaly fled from Troad to Phocis and settled in Delphi. [221]

In 1173 BC, the Magnesians, along with the Delphians, migrated to Lydia and founded Magnesia. [222]

6 Fourth Trojan War (1170 BC)

Two important accounts suggest the existence of a Fourth Trojan War.

1) The 5th-century theologian Jerome states, "After the sons of Antenor were banished, the sons of Hector recaptured Ilium, and Helenus assisted them." [223]

2) The 12th-century English cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth states, "After the descendants of Antenor were banished, the sons of Hector ruled Troy." [224]

6.1 Sons of Hector

In 1188 BC, Ilium was occupied by the sons of Antenor. Priam's sons and grandsons were unable to recapture Ilium and fled to various places. [225]

Hector's sons, who died in battle against Antenor's children, fled to the land of the Molossians (later Epirus) accompanied by Neoptolemus and Helenus, along with their mother, Andromache. [226]

Neoptolemus married Andromache and entrusted Hector's sons to Helenus. [227]

Hector had three sons: Scamandrius (or Astyanax), Laodamas, and Saperneios. [228]

However, a genealogy reveals a large age difference between Hector and Andromache, suggesting that Hector had many sons from other wives.

6.2 Recapture of Ilium

When Hector's sons came of age, Helenus gave them an army to attack Ilium. [229]

The core of the army consisted of Trojans led by Hector's sons, but Achaeans, including the Myrmidons, also participated in the expedition.

Hector's sons, along with the scattered descendants of Priam, recaptured Ilium, which had been occupied by the sons of Antenor. [230]

6.3 Year of Recapture

In 1186 BC, Hector's sons were young boys when they fled to the land of the Molossians. [231]

In 1175 BC, Neoptolemus sacked Delphi and was killed in battle against the Delphians led by Machaereus, son of Daetas. [232]

After Neoptolemus' death, Helenus succeeded him as king of Epirus. [233]

Later, Helenus passed the kingship to Neoptolemus' son, Molossus, rather than to his own son, Cestrinus. [234]

Thus, Hector's sons recaptured Ilium sometime between the death of Neoptolemus and that of Helenus.

It is estimated that Hector's sons recaptured Ilium in 1170 BC, when they reached adulthood.

6.4 The Date of the Fall of Ilium

Regarding the "month" when Ilium fell, ancient historical sources agree that it was the month of Thargelion. [235]

However, there is no agreement regarding the "day".

Attic authors write that the day Troy fell was "full moon", while the author of the Little Iliad writes that "the moon was shone clear". [236]

According to a list of historical solar eclipses posted on websites such as NASA, it is known that there was a solar eclipse on April 16, 1178 BC. That is, that day was a new moon. [237]

Based on that date, if I calculate the full moon of the month of Thargelion, which is mid-May to mid-June in the modern calendar, assuming a lunar cycle of 29.53 days, I get the following.

The full moon on the 15th day after April 16, 1178 BC (new moon) was May 1, 1178 BC.

There were two leap years between 1178 BC and 1170 BC.

From May 1, 1178 BC to June 1, 1170 BC, there are 365 days * 8 years + 2 days + 31 days = 2,953 days. This means that June 1, 1170 BC was also a full moon.

Based on the above, it is estimated that Ilium fell on June 1, 1170 BC.

6.5 Orestes' participation in the expedition

Agamemnon's son Orestes is believed to have participated in the expedition of Hector's sons.

At the same time, Orestes began colonizing. [238]

Orestes, together with Peisander of Amyclae, expeditioned to colonize the island of Tenedos. [239]

The Orestes colony probably included Trojans who fled from Tenedos to Tenea during Agamemnon's time.

It is also believed that the Orestes colony included people from Amyclae and Epidaurus whose lands had been devastated by the invasion of the Dorians led by Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, in 1173 BC. [240]

6.6 Andromache's Return

When Hector's sons recaptured Ilium, their mother Andromache did not accompany them to Ilium.

Andromache and Helenus had a son, Cestrinus. [241]

In 1156 BC, Andromache emigrated to Asia Minor with Pergamus, her son with Neoptolemus, after Helenus' death. Pergamus founded Pergamon in Mysia. [242]

Pergamon was close to Thebe, where Andromache was born.

End