1 Introduction

Many ancient legends tell the story of Heracles from his birth to his death.

Modern accounts of Heracles often quote these ancient legends.

Heracles is generally considered a fictional character, not a historical figure.

However, a closer examination of these ancient legends reveals the true nature of Heracles.

2 Days of Thebes

2.1 The birth of Heracles

Arriving from Plataea in Boeotia in Thebes and passing through the Electran Gate, on the left was the house of Amphitryon, son of Alcaeus. [1]

In 1275 BC, Amphitryon's wife, Alcmena, gave birth to a son there.

The boy was named Alcides, or Alcaeus, after his grandfather. [2]

Later, during an oracle, a Delphic priestess called him Heracles, and he was known by that name ever since. [3]

2.1.1 Alcaeus, Heracles' grandfather

Heracles' father, Amphitryon, was the son of Alcaeus, the son of Perseus, King of Tiryns. [4]

Amphitryon's mother was Hipponome, daughter of Menoeceus of Thebes. [5]

Amphitryon was born in 1305 BC to Alcaeus, King of Tiryns, and Hipponome. [6]

2.1.2 Amphitryon, Heracles' father

Amphitryon had no known siblings, but he had a sister, Perimede (or Anaxo), who married Lycymnius. [7]

In 1287 BC, Amphitryon married Laonome, daughter of Guneus, a powerful man in Pheneus, Arcadia. They had a son, Iphicles. [8]

After Iphicles was born, Amphitryon's wife, Laonome, died. Iphicles was presumably raised by Buphagus and his wife, Promne, who lived in Pheneus and were likely Laonome's siblings. [9]

In 1278 BC, Amphitryon emigrated from Tiryns to Thebes at the invitation of the Sparti of Thebes. [10]

The Sparti who invited Amphitryon was his grandfather, Menoeceus.

The lineage from Menoeceus to Creon, Haemon, and Maeon was that of the Sparti.[11]

2.1.2.1 Expedition to Northwestern Greece

In 1277 BC, Amphitryon led an expedition to the land of the Teleboans in northwestern Greece. [12]

The expedition was organized by Amphitryon's uncle, Helius (or Heleus), the youngest son of Perseus. Helius had founded Helos in Argolis, but was apparently dissatisfied and seeking a new land. [13]

Helius enlisted the help of his brother Electryon and his nephew Amphitryon. Amphitryon also recruited Cephalus, son of Pandion, who had fled from Thoricus in Attica to Thebes after being pursued by Aegeus, to join the expedition. [14]

The expeditionary force expelled the Teleboans from the islands floating in the Ionian Sea west of Acarnania and colonized them. Amphitryon returned to Thebes and dedicated the spoils to the temple. [15]

Cephalus settled the largest island in the Ionian Sea, calling it Cephallenia. [16]

Helius settled the Echinades archipelago. [17]

Later, Helius' son, Taphius, expelled the Teleboans from the islands north of Cephallenia and founded Taphos on one of them, calling it Taphos. [18]

The ancestor of the Teleboans who were expelled by them is presumably Teleboas, son of Therapne, daughter of Lelex who settled in Laconia from Egypt in 1430 BC. [19]

During the expedition, Electryon and his sons were killed in battle against the Teleboans. [20]

Amphitryon took Electryon's daughter Alcmena and Lycymnius, the only surviving son of Electryon, to Thebes, where Amphitryon married Alcmena. [21]

2.1.2.2 Iphicles, son of Amphitryon

Heracles' half-brother Iphicles married Automedusa, daughter of Alcathus, son of Pelops, from Pisa in Eleia. [22]

Alcathus married Euaechme, granddaughter of Nisus, king of Megara, and succeeded him as king of Megara. However, Iphicles' wife Automedusa was not Euaechme's daughter, but the daughter of Alcathus's previous wife, Pyrgo. [23]

Iphicles' stepmother Alcmena's mother, Eurydice (or Lysidice), was the sister of Alcathus, father of Automedusa. Iphicles and Automedusa had a son, Iolaus. [24]

Iolaus was eight years younger than Heracles and was his nephew, but he always accompanied Heracles as if he were his younger brother. Heracles loved Iolaus more than his sons. [25]

It is believed that without Iolaus, Heracles's exploits and the return to Peloponnesus of the Heracleidae, would not have been possible.

Iphicles had a daughter, Iope, who married Theseus of Athens. [26]

After Heracles' death, when no towns were willing to accept Heracles' children due to the threat of Eurystheus, only Athens accepted them. [27]

Theseus, the king of Athens who accepted Heracles' children, was the brother-in-law of their guardian, Iolaus.

2.1.2.3 Laonome, daughter of Amphitryon

Heracles also had a sister, Laonome, born to the same mother. [28]

Laonome married Euphemus, son of Theiodamas, who lived in Doris. [29]

Euphemus had a younger brother, Hylas. [30]

Hylas joined the Argonauts' expedition from Oechalia. [31]

Oechalia was in Trachis, near Mount Oeta. [32]

Later, near Trachis, where Heracles migrated, there was Oechalia, where his sister Laonome had lived. [33]

2.2 Heracles' childhood

Heracles became a priest to the Ismenian Apollo for one year, a position reserved for beautiful boys of noble birth. Amphitryon donated a bronze tripod to the temple. [34]

In 1262 BC, at the age of 13, Heracles was sent to work at a cattle farm. [35]

In 1258 BC, Chalcodon, a resident of Chalcis in Euboea, invaded Boeotia. Amphitryon, armed near the Proetidian Gate northeast of Thebes, marched against Chalcodon. Amphitryon fought Chalcodon near Teumessus, about 10 km from Thebes toward Aulis, and killed him. [36]

Shorterly before this, the son of Crius of Euboea had been killed while ravaging the area around Delphi. [37]

It is believed that Chalcodon invaded Boeotia for similar reasons, due to the famine caused by drought that struck Greece around this time. [38]

It is unclear whether Heracles, who was estimated to be 17 years old at the time, was involved in his father Amphitryon's military exploits.

The cattle ranch where Heracles worked was near Thespiae, west of Thebes.

A lion descended from the Cithaeron Mountains and attacked Amphitryon's cattle and those of Thespius in Thespiae. Heracles, now 18 years old, was welcomed by Thespius and slayed the lion. [39]

After this, Heracles traveled to the Peloponnesus with his father Amphitryon and visited the home of Pittheus in Troezen on the east coast of Argolis. Theseus, son of Pittheus' daughter Aethra, was still a child when he saw Heracles sitting on a lion skin. [40]

Pittheus was the brother of Heracles' maternal grandmother, Eurydice (or Lysidice), and Theseus was Heracles' maternal second cousin.

2.3 Battle against the Minyans

In 1256 BC, while Amphitryon and Heracles were traveling, a battle broke out between Thebans and Minyans in Orchomenus, about 50 km northwest of Thebes.

Clymenus, king of the Minyans, was killed by Perieres, the charioteer of Menoeceus, son of Creon of Thebes, at Onchestus, about halfway between Thebes and Orchomenus. Thebes was attacked and defeated by Clymenus' son Erginus, and was forced to pay 20 years of tribute. [41]

Returning from their journey, Amphitryon and Heracles fought Erginus, advancing all the way to Orchomenus and quickly bringing the battle to a close. [42]

Heracles lost his father Amphitryon in the battle against the Minyans, but he treated Erginus with mercy. [43]

The battle was well-prepared, with Corinthians also coming to Thebes' aid. [44]

Oedipus, who had arrived from Corinth, lost two of his sons, Phrastor and Laonytus, in the battle. [45]

Minos' brother Rhadamanthus, who had lived in Ocaleae near Hariatos shortly after the battle between Minos and Athens, also joined the Thebans. [46]

Heracles dedicated a stone lion to the temple of Artemis in Thebes to celebrate his victory over Eginus. [47]

Creon of Thebes bestowed upon Heracles his daughter Megara, and upon Iphicles, Heracles' half-brother, Megara's sister. [48]

Megara was the daughter of Creon, the much older brother of Heracles' paternal grandmother Hipponome, and a cousin of Amphitryon.

Iphicles had previously lived in Pheneus, Arcadia, but before the battle with the Minyans, he lived in Thebes with his son Iolaus. Iolaus was 11 years old at the time, not yet old enough to be a warrior.

Alcmena, now a widow, remarried Rhadamanthys of Ocaleae. [49]

Alcmena was honored by Thebans when she left. [50]

2.4 Divorce from Megara

After the battle with the Minyans, Heracles lived peacefully in Thebes, where he and his wife, Megara, had children. [51]

All of Heracles' children died in a fire, likely caused by an accident. Heracles realized that his marriage to Megara was not blessed by the gods, so he divorced her and married her to Iolaus. [52]

This incident alienated Heracles from Creon. Heracles subsequently moved to Thebes, avoiding it.

The deaths of Heracles' children occurred in Thebes, and the tombs of Amphitryon and Heracles' children were located there. [53]

3 Days of Tiryns

3.1 Migration to Tiryns

In 1251 BC, Heracles emigrated from Thebes to Tiryns, the former territory of his father, Amphitryon. [54]

Mycenae was inherited by its founder Perseus, Sthenelus, and then Eurystheus. The conflict with Argos, which had continued since Perseus' time, had not yet been resolved, and Eurystheus' sons were still young, so there was no one nearby to help him.

It is thought that Eurystheus entrusted Tiryns to Heracles, the son of his cousin Amphitryon. Alternatively, Heracles may have moved to Tiryns of his own volition due to a feud with Creon of Thebes.

Ancient poets, unable to understand Heracles's motives for moving to Tiryns, attributed it to an oracle. [55]

3.2 Labors of Heracles

Many of the 12 labors that Eurystheus supposedly commanded Heracles to perform are absurd fiction.

However, the Centaurs of Arcadia, who appear in the fourth labor, and Augeas of Elis, who appears in the fifth labor, appear to be based on historical fact. [56]

However, their interactions with these two men occurred later than Heracles' time in Tiryns.

Also, Geryon of Erytheia, who appears in the tenth labor, was a real person. Geryon's grandson Norax lived slightly before Iolaus and was roughly the same age as Heracles. If Geryon also lived longer, he would have been a contemporary of Heracles.

However, the legend that Heracles traveled to Erytheia in the southern Iberian peninsula is fiction. Geryon and the region in which he lived were associated with Heracles, but it was not Heracles, son of Amphitryon, but Maceris, also called Egyptian Heracles or Phoenician Heracles, who was a native of Canopus in Egypt and died in the Iberian peninsula.[57]

3.3 Activities in Asia Minor

3.3.1 Three Years in Lydia

From 1248 BC, Heracles spent three years under Omphale in Lydia. [58]

According to legend, Heracles accidentally killed Iphitus, son of Eurytus, and was sold as a slave to Omphale. [59]

According to Hittite texts, during this time, the Hittites suppressed a rebellion by Piyama-Radu in Lukka (Lycia) and demanded his extradition after he fled to Ahhiyawa. [60]

Piyama-Radu is presumably Celaeneus, the brother of Heracles' mother, Alcmena.

Heracles may have traveled to Asia Minor to support his uncle Celaeneus. Eurystheus of Mycenae was a cousin of Celaeneus, and it is possible that Eurystheus dispatched Heracles to Asia Minor.

Iardanus' daughter, Omphale, is thought to have been a Maeonian who lived near Mount Timolus in Lydia. [61]

In 1318 BC, after being defeated in battle by the Hittite king Mursili II, most of the Maeonians, led by Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, migrated from Lydia to the Italian peninsula. [62]

The Maeonians who remained in Lydia are thought to have continued to rebel against the Hittites, along with Piyama-Radu.

3.3.2 Return from Lydia

In 1246 BC, Heracles returned to Tiryns from Lydia. [63]

Heracles brought with him the Cylicranes (or Kylikranoi) from Lydia. [64]

Among them was Omphale, who bore Heracles a son, Tyrsenus (or Tyrrhenus). [65]

The Cylicranes, a branch of the Maeonians, likely migrated to Peloponnesus with Heracles after being chased by the Hittites.

In 1107 BC, Hegeleos, a descendant of Tyrsenus, migrated from Doris to Argos as a member of the Heracleidae, along with Temenus, son of Aristomachus. [66]

3.3.3 Expedition to Ilium

Heracles is said to have made an expedition to Ilium. [67]

In 1244 BC, the Trojan War broke out, with the Achaeans participating.

Laomedon, son of Ilus, who lived in Ilium, died and was succeeded by Priam (or Podarces), son of Laomedon. [68]

The descendants of Assaracus, son of Tros, who lived in Dardanus, expelled Priam from Ilium and made Aegestus (or Acestes), grandson of Phaenodamas, son of Ilus, king. However, Priam recaptured Ilium with the help of the Hittite army. [69]

Heracles is believed to have been among the Achaean expeditionary force that arrived in Ilium to reinforce the descendants of Assaracus.

3.3.4 Expedition to Cos

There is a legend that Heracles stopped at Cos on his way back from Ilium. [70]

If this is true, it is assumed that the events were as follows:

At the time, Cos was ruled by Merops. Merops was pursued by Eurypylus, the husband of his daughter Clytia, and asked Heracles for help. Heracles attempted to persuade Merops to return home, but a battle ensued. Heracles was wounded in battle by Eurypylus' son, Chalcodon (or Chalcon). [71]

Merops is believed to have been a descendant of Neandrus, the son of Macareus, who migrated from Lesbos to Cos. [72]

Heracles and Eurypylus' daughter, Chalciope, had a son named Thessalus (or Thettalus). Thessalus had two sons, Pheidippus (or Phidippus) and Antiphus. During the Trojan War, the descendants of Thessalus, son of Heracles, ruled Cos. [73]

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, who lived in Cos in the early 4th century BC, was a 20th-generation descendant of Heracles. [74]

3.4 First attack on Elis

3.4.1 Cause of the attack on Elis

In 1243 BC, Heracles prepared to attack Elis. [75]

According to legend, Heracles' attack on Elis was caused by Augeas of Elis failing to pay the reward he had promised Heracles. However, the historical facts appear to be as follows: [76]

Augeas's mother was Nausidame, daughter of Amphidamas of Arcadia. Nausidame's sister, Antibia, was Eurystheus's stepmother, making Augeas and Eurystheus cousins. [77]

Because of this marriage, Elis and Mycenae enjoyed amicable relations before the birth of Eurystheus. However, when Eurystheus' father, Sthenelus, married Pelops' daughter, Nicippe (or Archippe), for a second time and had Eurystheus, relations between Elis and Mycenae deteriorated. [78]

After Pelops' death, Elis took over rule of Olympia from Pisa. Elis held the games there, and relations between Pisa and Elis also deteriorated. Eurystheus is thought to have asked Heracles to attack Elis in response to a petition from Pisa, his mother's hometown. [79]

In other words, Heracles' goal in attacking Elis was to free Olympia from Elis's control and return it to Pisa's jurisdiction.

3.4.2 Pisa sends reinforcements to Elis

Pausanias reports that Pylus and Pisa participated in the defense of Elis, which was attacked by Heracles. [80]

However, Pisa was the town of Eurystheus' mother and the town of Heracles' maternal grandmother. It is unlikely that Pisa participated in the battle against Heracles.

Pausanias reports that Heracles did not attack Pisa after receiving the following oracle from Delphi: [81]

My father cares for Pisa, but to me in the hollows of Pytho.

The priestess of Delphi spoke on behalf of the god Apollo, saying something along the lines of, “My father (Zeus) is concerned about Pisa, and I (Apollo) am concerned about Delphi.” This seems to be a warning not to interfere with Pisa, the sacred place of Zeus.

However, this oracle is believed to be a fabrication by 5th-century BC figures such as Pindar and Herodotus, who identified Pisa with Olympia. [82]

3.4.3 Attack on Elis

Augeas, learning of Heracles' actions, appointed two sons of Actor, ruler of Hyrmina, west of Elis, Ceatas and Eurytus, as generals. [83]

Actor was the son of Hyrmina, daughter of Epeius, son of Endymion, and a second cousin of Augeas, son of Eleius, son of Eurycyda, daughter of Endymion. [84]

Heracles attacked Elis, but was unable to defeat Actor's sons, who were brave warriors. Heracles fell ill and a truce was called. [85]

3.4.4 Death of Iphicles

However, Actor's sons, learning of Heracles's illness, attacked him, resulting in heavy casualties on Heracles' side. [86]

Among the dead was Heracles' half-brother Iphicles, who was wounded by Actor's sons and died of his wounds in Pheneus, Arcadia. [87]

Some legends say Iphicles died in battle at Lacedaemon. However, the more detailed and plausible version states that Iphicles died in Pheneus, nursed by Buphagus and his wife Promne. [88]

3.4.5 Attack at Cleonae

In 1243 BC, Heracles attacked and killed two of Actor's sons, Ceatas and Eurytus, at Cleonae while they were traveling from Hyrmina to Isthmus. [89]

According to legend, many Cleonaeans assisted Heracles in the attack, resulting in 360 deaths. [90]

However, it is said that Molione, the mother of the slain brothers, investigated the perpetrators, suggesting that the attack was the result of a small ambush. [91]

At the time, Cleonae had only recently been founded by Atreus, son of Pelops, and Atreus assisted Heracles in the attack. [92]

Atreus was the brother of Eurydice (or Lysidice), mother of Alcmena, mother of Heracles.

When Elis, at the request of Molione, demanded that the attackers be punished, Eurystheus allowed Heracles to leave Tiryns without any punishment. [93]

4 Days of Pheneus

4.1 Battle against the Centaurs

In 1243 BC, Heracles, accompanied by his mother Alcmena and his nephew Iolaus, emigrated to Pheneus in northeastern Arcadia. [94]

Earlier, Alcmena had remarried Minos' brother Rhadamanthys and lived in Ocaleae in Boeotia. After Rhadamanthys' death, Alcmena lived with Heracles in Tiryns. [95]

After migrating to Pheneus, Heracles was asked by Cepheus of Tegea to help eradicate the Centaurs. The Centaurs lived near Mount Pelion in Thessaly, but were driven from their settlement by the Lapiths, led by Peirithous, son of Ixion of Larissa, who had been gaining power. Some of the Centaurs settled around Mount Pholoe in northwestern Arcadia and engaged in banditry. [96]

Heracles destroyed the Centaurs who lived in Arcadia and, with the help of Cepheus, gained many Arcadians as military forces. [97]

4.2 Second attack on Elis

In 1241 BC, Heracles, with renewed military might, prepared another expedition to Elis. This expedition included Arcadians, Thebans, Argives, and Epeians. [98]

4.2.1 Arcadians

The Arcadians were a people of Pheneus related to Heracles' half-brother Iphicles.

The Arcadians accompanied Heracles, and after his death, they accompanied the sons of Heracles. [99]

4.2.2 Thebans

The Thebans were the people who fought alongside Heracles against Erginus of Orchomenus and migrated with Heracles from Thebes to Tiryns.

4.2.3 Argives

The Argives are likely the people of Argos led by Oecles, son of Mantius, son of Melampus. Shortly before this, Oecles, who had been exiled to Calydon by his brother Abas, returned to Argos with his father and son Amphiaraus. They had expelled those who had driven them out, leaving only Oecles' family in Argos.

Eurystheus of Mycenae likely helped Oecles return and recruited him to join Heracles in his attack on Elis.

4.2.4 Epeians

The Epeians were the descendants of those who remained in Dyme in Achaia and elsewhere when Aetolus, son of Endymion of Elis, was driven out of Salmoneus and migrated to Aetolia. [100]

4.2.5 Occupation of Elis

In 1240 BC, Heracles led an expeditionary force from Pheneus to attack Elis. Augeas, supported by reinforcements from Pylus, defended, but the Eleans, without Actor's sons, were defeated by Heracles and the town was captured. [101]

Heracles summoned Augeas' eldest son, Phyleus, from Dulichium in Acarnania to Elis. Heracles granted Phyleus's request and pardoned Augeas. [102]

4.3 Attack on Pylus

4.3.1 Destruction of Pylus

Heracles attacked Neleus of Pylus. In this battle, all 12 of Neleus' sons were killed except for the youngest, Nestor, and Pylus was destroyed. [103]

Some traditions say that Pylus, where Neleus lived, was located in Messenia, but it was actually located up the Peneus River from Elis in Eleia, and a short distance up the Ladon River, a tributary of the River Peneius. [104]

4.3.2 Whereabouts of Nestor

Earlier, Nestor and his brothers fought against the Arcadians over the possession of Chaa in southern Eleia, and the youngest Nestor is said to have fought in single combat. Therefore, Nestor must have already reached the age of a warrior by the time of his battle with Heracles. [105]

Nestor likely stayed in Gerenia, located on the eastern side of the Gulf of Messenia, to evacuate and protect his brothers's children and Neleus's herds of cattle, which represented his wealth. [106]

4.4 Evander's Colony

After finishing the battle, Heracles' expeditionary force encountered Evander's immigrant group.

Evander, son of Themis, was defeated in a battle at Pallantium (near modern-day Palantio), about 8 km west of Tegea in Arcadia, and was on a journey to find a new land. [107]

Evander recruited volunteers from Heracles' expedition, including the Epeians of Dyme in Achaia and the Arcadians of Pheneus in Arcadia. Evander set out from Cyllene, the outer port of Elis, to seek a new land. [108]

Evander's colony sailed clockwise around the Italian peninsula, up the Tiber River in the central west part of the peninsula, and landed in what would later become Rome. They settled near a hill called Velia, later named Palatium. [109]

4.5 Hosting the Olympic Games

In 1239 BC, Heracles hosted the Olympic Games. [110]

Before Heracles, Augeas of Elis, who also ruled Olympia, hosted the Games.

Before him, Aethlius, Endymion, Epeius, and Alexinus of Elis, Oenomaus and Pelops of Pisa, Amythaon and Neleus of Pylus hosted the Games.

The Olympic Games were hosted by prominent figures in Eleia. Heracles' hosting of the Olympic Games aroused the suspicions of Eurystheus of Mycenae. [111]

4.6 Battle against Hippocoon

4.6.1 Reason for the Battle

In 1239 BC, Heracles attacked Hippocoon, who lived in Sparta.

According to legend, the reason for the attack was that Hippocoon sided with Neleus when Heracles attacked Pylus. [112]

However, the following facts suggest that the reason for the battle was a dispute between Sparta and Tegea.

1) There is no reason for Hippocoon to side with Neleus, who lived in distant Pylus.

2) The battle between Heracles and Hippocoon occurred after the troops attacking Elis had been disbanded.

3) Cepheus of Tegea and his sons were killed in the battle. [113]

4) Sparta and Tegea had been at war repeatedly. [114]

In other words, Cepheus of Tegea, who was fighting against Sparta, likely attacked Hippocoon with the help of Heracles.

Cepheus' brother Amphidamas was the father of Eurystheus' wife Antimache, and Eurystheus may have asked Heracles to help Cepheus.

4.6.2 Outcome of the Battle

Heracles fought Hippocoon at Amyclae and Sparta, defeating him and capturing their cities. Cepheus and all but three of his 20 sons were killed in battle. [115]

5 Days of Calydon

5.1 Migration to Calydon

In 1238 BC, Heracles crossed the strait from Pheneus in Arcadia and emigrated to Calydon in Aetolia. Heracles, accompanied by many Arcadians, likely left Peloponnesus out of fear that Eurystheus would view him as an enemy. [116]

Alternatively, Eurystheus may have persuaded Amphidamas, son of Lycurgus, king of Arcadia, to urge Heracles to leave Pheneus. Amphidamas was the father of Eurystheus' wife, Antimache. [117]

Heracles likely chose Calydon as his settlement location after hearing about it from Oecles, the son of Mantius, who died during the attack on Elis. [118]

Oecles fled Argos with his father, Mantius, and lived in Calydon for over 20 years. Calydon was a popular settlement for the people of that time. [119]

5.2 Marriage with Deianeira

In 1238 BC, Heracles married Deianeira, daughter of Oeneus. [120]

Heracles was 37 years old, and Deianeira was 17. [121]

Deianeira was the woman Heracles formally married after divorcing Megara, daughter of Creon of Thebes. [122]

5.3 Irrigation of the Achelous

Heracles constructed a large irrigation basin in Calydon from the Achelous River, both to train his followers, the Arcadians, and as a token of gratitude to the local people. [123]

Heracles irrigated the area near the mouth of the Achelous River, called Paracheloitis. [124]

The Achelous River flowed further west than the lands of Pleuron and Curetes, both west of Calydon. Calydon and Pleuron had been at war for many years, and evidence suggests that Oeneus controlled the region up to the Achelous River.

5.4 Expedition to Thesprotia

In 1237 BC, Heracles led an expedition into the land of the Thesprotians and captured Ephyra, located approximately 180 km northwest of Calydon. This was a major expedition, requiring a seven-day journey one way. It is unlikely that there was a conflict of interest between Calydon and Ephyra, both of which were far apart. The purpose of this campaign is unknown.[125]

5.4.1 Purpose of the Expedition

Shortly before the Trojan War, Odysseus, son of Laertes, visited Ilus, son of Mermerus, in Ephyra, seeking poison to coat his arrows. [126]

Mermerus was the son of Jason, who led the Argonauts' expedition, and Meda, daughter of Aeetes. Mermerus' son Ilus likely learned the art of poison-making from his grandmother, Meda, a renowned poison maker. [127]

In his later years, Jason settled in Scheria (later Corcyra), located in the Ionian Sea west of Dodona. [128]

The purpose of the expedition was likely to be for Jason to settle there. Heracles, who lived in Calydon, likely cooperated with Jason and participated in the expedition to Thesprotia. Jason's motivation for emigrating is presumably due to information he received about the wealth of northwestern Greece from the Sphinx, whom he captured during a raid on Boeotia. The Sphinx invaded Boeotia and was defeated by Oedipus, the leader of the Corinthians. Corinth was ruled by Jason at the time, and Jason also participated in the battle against the Sphinx. [129]

The death of his wife, Medea, also prompted Jason to decide to emigrate. Jason's sons, Mermerus and Pheres, accompanied him on his migration. [130]

5.4.2 Participants in the Expedition

Heracles was accompanied by Arcadians from the Peloponnesus Peninsula and Calydonians under Oeneus of Calydon. However, these forces were not enough to capture Ephyra, the capital of Thesprotia, home to the Thesprotians who would occupy Thessaly 50 years later. [131]

In addition to those led by Jason and Heracles, the following peoples also participated in the expedition:

Dulichians led by Phyleus, son of Augeas

Lacedaemonians led by Icarius, son of Oebalus

Corinthians led by Ornytion, son of Sisyphus

Taphians led by Taphius, son of Helius

Cephallenians led by Arcesius (or Arcisius), son of Cephalus

Polyidus, son of Coeranus

5.4.2.1 Phyleus, son of Augeas

Homer describes a breastplate brought back from Ephyra by Phyleus, son of Augeas, and further reports that it was a gift from the local king, Euphetes. [132]

The Ephyra mentioned by Homer is sometimes interpreted as being in Eleia, but it was in Thesprotia. [133]

When Heracles captured Elis, he granted Phyleus's request and treated Phyleus's father, Augeas, with mercy. Phyleus repaid the favor by joining Heracles' expedition. [134]

Phyleus led the Dulichians from Dulichium (or Dulichia, later Paleis) in Cephallenia and accompanied Heracles on an expedition to Ephyra. [135]

After this expedition, Meges, son of Phyleus, settled in the Echinades, taking possession of the largest island and calling it Dulichium, the same name as his hometown.

Meges led the people of Dulichium in Cephallenia, the Echinades, and Cyllene in Eleia in the expedition against Troy. [136]

5.4.2.2 Icarius, son of Oebalus

Icarius participated in Heracles' expedition to Thesprotia, leading the Lacedaemonians who wished to emigrate. [137]

Icarius settled in Acarnania, and his two sons, Alyzeus and Leucadius, founded towns named after them. [138]

The Teleboans, who lived in Acarnania, migrated to the west coast of central Italian peninsula under the leadership of Oebalus, son of Telon, and founded Capreae on an island near Neapolis. [139]

Icarius married Polycaste (or Polyboea), daughter of Lygaeus, after the expedition, presumably as a prisoner of war. Polycaste gave birth to Penelope, who later became the wife of Odysseus. [140]

5.4.2.3 Ornytion, son of Sisyphus

Leading the Corinthians on the expedition alongside Jason was Ornytion, son of Sisyphus, who would later become ruler of Corinth.

During this expedition, Ornytion married Peirene, daughter of Oebalus, son of Telon, who lived near the Achelous River in Acarnaia. [141]

Their sons were Leches and Cenchrias, from whom Corinth's two outer ports, Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf and Cenchreae on the Saronic Gulf, were named. [142]

5.4.2.4 Taphius, son of Helius

Taphius participated in the expedition as a way of repaying his father Helius for the help he received from Amphitryon, father of Heracles, in colonizing the Echinades. [143]

Taphius migrated from the Echinades to an island northwest of the islands and founded Taphos, and the island became known as Taphos. [144]

5.4.2.5 Arcesius, son of Cephalus

Arcesius (or Arcisius), like Taphius, also participated in the expedition as a way of repaying his father Amphitryon, father of Heracles, and expanded his settlement from Cephallenia to Ithaca.

During Amphitryon's expedition, Cephalus expelled the Teleboans from Cephallenia, who settled in Ithaca. [145]

At that time, Cephalus married Euryodeia, daughter of Pterelas the Teleboan, and had a son, Arcesius. [146]

Arcesius married Chalcomedusa, presumably the daughter of Ithacus, during a battle with the Teleboans of Ithaca. [147]

Strabo notes that the inhabitants of Ithaca and Taphos were on friendly terms, since both participated in the campaigns of Heracles and, with the help of Heracles' father, Amphitryon, both settled in the area at the same time. [148]

After this campaign, Arcesius' son, Laertes, captured Nericus, located on the isthmus of the Leucas Peninsula. [149]

5.4.2.6 Polyidus, son of Coeranus

Coeranus, son of Abas, son of Melampus, left Argos due to internal conflict.

At the time of the expedition, Polyidus, son of Coeranus, was living in Corinth. [150]

The 5th-century BC Athenian mythologist Pherecydes reports that Polyidus married Eurydameia, daughter of Phyleus, who lived in Dulichium, Acarnania. [151]

Polyidus and Eurydameia were of marriageable age at the time, and it is likely that Polyidus's participation in Heracles' expedition made this long-distance marriage between Corinth and Dulichium possible. [152]

5.4.3 Sons of Heracles and Astyoche, daughter of Phyleus

Heracles and Astyoche, daughter of Phyleus, who had been taken captive in Ephyra, had a son named Tlepolemus (or Tleptolemus). [153]

Tlepolemus later returned to Peloponnesus for a time as a member of the Heracleidae, and from there migrated to Rhodes. [154]

Heracles and Astyoche had another son, Dexamenus. Dexamenus' son, Ambrax, became ruler of Ambracia near Ephyra. [155]

Dexamenus had sons named Pheidippus and Haimon, who led the Thesprotians in an invasion of Thessaly and occupied it. The inhabitants of Thessaly either remained as penestai (slaves) or emigrated to other lands. [156]

In 1126 BC, Thessalus, son of Aeatus, son of Pheidippus, expelled the Boeotians who had become penestai and remained in Arne, and the region came to be called Thessaliotis. [157]

5.4.4 Colonization to Sardinia

While in Ephyra, Heracles instructed Iolaus to colonize Sardinia, located west of the Italian peninsula, with the sons of Thespius' daughters. [158]

Thespius' daughters reportedly had 51 sons, born to Heracles and his 50 daughters. Heracles, having consulted with Thespius, who had many grandchildren, likely instructed Iolaus to lead them to colonize the Italian peninsula. [159]

Ancient sources often use the phrase "by oracle" when the true meaning of an action is unclear. In this case, too, Heracles is reported to have sent the colonists "by oracle." [160]

The people of Ephyra likely learned of Sardinia's wealth from people who had stopped by the town to consult the oracle of Dodona, and Heracles likely learned of it from them. [161]

In 1236 BC, Iolaus led a colony from Athens. This was the first time that Athens had sent people outside of Greece. Like the second colony of Ionia, led by Neileus, son of Codrus, this one was likely a formal emigration departed from the Prytaneum in Athens. [162]

5.5 Emigration from Calydon

In 1237 BC, Heracles lived peacefully in Calydon, where he and Deianeira had a son, Hyllus. [163]

In the third year of his marriage to Deianeira, Heracles reportedly decided to leave Calydon after accidentally killing Ennomus (or Eurynomus), son of Architeles, a relative of Oeneus. [164]

However, Heracles's emigration at this time was likely driven by the wishes of Eurystheus of Mycenae, who feared Heracles's further expansion in Calydon. It is believed that Oecles' son Amphiaraus conveyed Eurystheus's wishes to Oeneus. Amphiaraus was born in Calydon, and Oecles and Oeneus were brothers-in-law through their respective wives. [165]

5.6 Battle against Centaurs' Remnants

In 1235 BC, Heracles left Calydon, where he had lived for three years, for Trachis. Along the way, he reportedly killed the centaur Nessus, who had attempted to rape his wife, Deianeira, at the Evenus River, east of Calydon. [166]

However, this is a fictional story, possibly linked to Heracles' later death.

In reality, Heracles fought with Nessus, the last of the centaurs who had been bandits in the strategic area leading from Aetolia to Phocis and Thessaly. [167]

The battle took place about 10 km east of the Evenus River. There, on the hill of Taphiassus, the tomb of Nessus and the other centaurs was located. [168]

Heracles then headed east, keeping the Gulf of Corinth to his right. He entered inland at Delphi's outer port, Cirrha, and then traveled north across the Crisa Plain to Amphissa. [169]

In Amphissa, Deianeira's sister, Gorges, lived and welcomed Heracles and his companions. [170]

He continued north from Amphissa, passing through Dryopis, a mountain in the upper reaches of the Cephissus River between Mount Oeta (2,152 m) to the north and Mount Parnasus (2,457 m) to the south, and arriving in Trachis. [171]

They continued north from Amphissa, and arrived at Trachis via Dryopis, which stretches along the upper reaches of the Cephissus River, sandwiched between Mount Oeta (2,152 m) to the north and Mount Parnasus (2,457 m) to the south. [171]

6 Days of Trachis

6.1 Genealogy of Ceyx

Trachis was ruled by Ceyx, a friend of Heracles. [172]

Ceyx was the son of Actor and the brother of Menoetius, Heracles's best friend. [173]

Ceyx migrated from Phthia across the Spercheius River to the foot of Mount Oeta and founded Trachis, a city of the Myrmidons. [174]

After Ceyx's migration, the Aenianians, who lived in the Dotium plain in Thessaly, fled to the vicinity of Mount Oeta, pursued by the Lapiths. [175]

A branch of the Aenianians, the Malians, settled near Trachis. The daughter of their leader was married to Ceyx, and Ceyx became their leader. [176]

6.2 War against the Dryopians

In 1231 BC, Iolaus returned to Trachis after colonizing Sardinia. [177]

Heracles' first five years in Trachis were peaceful. Deianeira gave birth to sons Gleneus, Hodites, and Ctesippus, and a daughter, Macaria. [178]

In 1230 BC, Heracles, along with the Malians, attacked Phylas, the Dryopian king, killing him and expelling the Dryopians. [179]

The exiled Dryopians fled to Peloponnesus and received land from Eurystheus of Mycenae. The Dryopians founded Asine, Hermione, and Eion in Argolis. [180]

The Malians acquired the land after the Dryopians were expelled. [181]

Heracles had a son, Antiochus, with Meda, daughter of Phylas. [182]

In the 6th century BC, one of the ten tribes established by Clisthenes of Athens was named after Antiochus, the son of Heracles. [183]

6.3 Battle against the Lapiths

6.3.1 Fall of Iolcus

In 1236 BC, the Minyans, who lived in Iolcus in Thessaly, rebelled, killing Acastus, son of Pelias, and destroying Iolcus. [184]

The Minyans were driven out of Thessaly by Peleus of Phthia and settled in Lemnos. [185]

Pelias, son of Cretheus of Iolcus, prospered enough to be mentioned in the story of the Argonauts' expedition as the king who ordered it. However, the city was destroyed within three generations of its founding.

6.3.2 Expansion of the Lapiths

The fall of Iolcus affected the balance of power within Thessaly. It intensified the activities of the Lapiths, who lived in Gyrton and Larissa, downstream of the Peneius River in northern Thessaly.

In 1420 BC, Doris (part of later Hestiaeotis) along the Peneius River was inhabited by Dorus, son of Hellen, who migrated to Mount Parnassus. [186]

In 1390 BC, the Pelasgians were expelled from Thessaly, and the Lapiths occupied their lands. The Lapiths then invaded the upper Peneius River. Mopsus, son of Ampycus, lived in Oechalia, and Aesculapius, son of Ischys, in Tricca. The Dorians who lived in Doris were gradually oppressed by Coronus, son of Caeneus of Gyrton. [187]

6.3.3 Battle against Coronus

The Dorians of Doris remained related to the descendants of Dorus, son of Hellen, even after he migrated near Mount Parnassus.

In 1227 BC, the Dorians of Doris were attacked by Coronus, son of Caeneus of Gyrton, and sought help from Aegimius, son of Dorus, king of the Dorians who lived near Mount Parnassus. Aegimius rushed to Doris but was driven back by Coronus. Aegimius then sought help from Heracles of Trachis, promising to cede land. Heracles led an expedition to Doris with the Arcadians and Malians. Heracles defeated Coronus, who had occupied the Dorians' land, and drove out the Lapiths. [188]

6.3.4 Battle against Laogoras

Furthermore, Heracles killed Laogoras, a Dryopian who had sided with the Lapiths. [189]

Laogoras was the brother of Phylas, who lived in Dryopis. After being defeated in battle by Heracles, he fled to Coronus in Gyrton. Laogoras sided with Coronus, who was trying to drive out the Dorians living in Doris. [190]

6.3.5 Battle against Cycnus

Not all of the Lapiths joined Coronus in Gyrton, including Aesculapius, son of Ischys of Tricca.

Heracles marched from Gyrton to Itonus on the west coast of the Pagasetic Gulf to fight the Lapiths who had sided with Coronus. [191]

Cycnus of Itonus was the son of Aethalides, son of Cercaphus, son of Aeolus, son of Periphas, son of Lapithus, and he was one of the Lapiths. [192]

Heracles fought Cycnus at Itonus and killed him. [193]

6.3.6 Battle against Ormenus

After this, Heracles attacked the newly founded Ormenion, located east of the destroyed Iolcus. According to legend, the battle began when Ormenus (or Ormenius) blocked Heracles's passage. [194]

However, Ormenus was the son of Cercaphus, son of Aeolus, son of Periphas, son of Lapithus, and thus a member of the Lapiths. It is believed that Ormenus was attacked by Heracles for siding with Coronus. [195]

In the battle against Heracles, Ormenus and his son Amyntor were killed. Shortly before, Amyntor's son Phoenix, who had previously been at odds with his father, went to Peleus in Phthia and received Dolopia as his share. [196]

Peleus was the son of Aeacus, the son of Actor, the brother of Eupolemeia, the wife of Cercaphus, the father of Ormenus, the father of Amyntor, the father of Phoenix. Thus, Peleus was a cousin-in-law of Phoenix's father. [197]

6.3.7 Battle against Eurytus

In 1224 BC, Heracles next set out for Oechalia, where Eurytus lived.

6.3.7.1 Location of Oechalia

There are various theories about the location of Oechalia, the city Heracles attacked.

Pausanias writes that Messenia, where Eurytus' remains are said to be, is the most likely location. [198]

The 5th-century BC historian Hecataeus reports that it was the town of Scius, located in the territory of Eretria in Euboea. [199]

The poet Creophylus of Samos, a contemporary of Homer, also reported that Euboea was there. [200]

The location of Oechalia, the home of Melaneus' son Eurytus, is debated in the writings of Strabon, a geographer from the early 1st century AD. However, Strabon asserts that Oechalia, destroyed by Heracles, was located within the territory of Eretria in Euboea. [201]

This confusion arose because Melaneus and his son Eurytus did not change the name of the town when they moved from one place to another.

Eurytus's father, Melaneus, went to Perieres, son of Aeolus, who ruled Andania in Messenia, and founded Oechalia on the land he had been given. [202]

Based on the dating and the location of his descendants, Aeolus is believed to have been the son of Lapithus, son of Aeolus, son of Hippotes, and Perieres and Melaneus were likely brothers. [203]

The chronological order is estimated to be as follows:

In 1310 BC, Melaneus founded the first Oechalia a short distance upstream on the Ion River, which flows into the Peneius River.

In 1305 BC, Melaneus emigrated to Messenia at the request of his brother Perieres and founded the second Oechalia near Andania. [204]

In 1239 BC, Tyndareus returned to Sparta from his settlement in Aetolia. [205]

In 1237 BC, Eurytus was attacked by Tyndareus and driven out of Messenia. He emigrated to Euboea and founded the third Oechalia. [206]

6.3.7.2 Battle against Eurytus

It is said that Heracles attacked Eurytus at the request of the Euboeans, who were forced to pay tribute to Eurytus. [207]

However, this battle was the final one against the Lapiths, who had sided with Coronus of Gyrton. It is believed that the Lapiths, driven from their homes by the battles with Heracles, had taken refuge with Eurytus. The battle with Eurytus was fiercer than any of the previous battles.

On Heracles' side, Hippasus, son of Ceyx of Trachis, and Argius and Melas, sons of Licymnius, Heracles' mother's half-brother, were killed in the battle. [208]

On Eurytus' side, Eurytus himself and his sons, Toxeus, Molion, and Clytius, were killed in battle, and his daughter Iole was taken prisoner. [209]

The battle was attended by Arcadians, Malians led by Ceyx of Trachis, and the Epicnemidian Locrians. The Cylicranes also followed Heracles. [210]

The mother city of Epicnemidian Locris was Opus, ruled by Menoetius, son of Actor, a friend of Heracles, who also participated in the expedition. [211]

Menoetius' son Patroclus, still a boy, did not participate in the battle. However, Menoetius' son Abderus, a favorite of Heracles, is presumed to have participated. [212]

Heracles left Oechalia and performed a sacrifice at Cape Cenaeum, on the northwestern tip of Euboea, before returning to Trachis. [213]

6.4 Founding of Heraclea

The Cylicranes, who migrated from Lydia with Heracles, lived a short distance from Trachis but became bandits and threatened the surrounding population. Heracles destroyed their settlement and founded a town called Heraclea, where they settled. [214]

The Cylicranes continued to live in Heraclea, and 112 years later, they participated in the Heracleidae's expedition against Peloponnesus, led by Hegeleos, a descendant of Heracles and Omphale. [215]

7 Death of Heracles

Heracles suffered from serious illness at least twice: before his trip to Lydia and during his first attack on Elis. After founding Heraclea, Heracles was struck down with a fatal illness. [216]

Heracles, upon his death, instructed his eldest son, Hyllus, to marry Eurytus' daughter, Iole, upon his coming of age. [217]

After his father's death, Hyllus obeyed his father's orders and married Iole, and together they had two children: a son, Cleodaeus, and a daughter, Euaichme. [218]

Heracles is believed to have died at Heraclea near Mount Oeta. [219]

Aegimius, king of the Dorians, who had been helped by Heracles, was grateful to Heracles and adopted his eldest son, Hyllus. [220]

Aegimius's care for Heracles' children led to the rule of the Dorians under Peloponnesus.

Heracles died before Hyllus, born in 1237 BC, reached adulthood, after a battle with Eurytus in 1224 BC.

The second-century theologian Clemens of Alexandria and the fifth-century theologian Jerome report that Heracles died at the age of 52. [221]

Heracles died in 1223 BC at the age of 52.

The early second-century historian Arrian of Nicomedia estimates that Heracles and Oedipus, son of Laius, were contemporary, but they died around the same time. [222]

8 Alcmena, mother of Heracles

After Heracles' death, Alcmena briefly returned to her hometown of Midea in Argolis with her grandson Hyllus. However, she died in Megara during the retreat from Peloponnesus with the Heracleidae. She died in 1214 BC at the age of 78. [223]

A dispute arose over whether Alcmena should be buried in Argos, where her ancestors rest, or in Thebes, where the tombs of her husband Amphitryon and Heracles' children were located. In the end, she was buried next to the tomb of her second husband, Rhadamanthys, at Ocaleae in Boeotia. [224]

At the time, Thebes was ruled by Creon, the father of Megara, from whom Heracles had divorced her, and she could not be buried next to the tombs of Amphitryon and Heracles' children. [225]

In the 4th century BC, Alcmena's tomb in Ocaleae was reburied in Sparta by King Agesilaus of Sparta. [226]

The tomb of Alcmena contained a bronze tablet inscribed with an ancient script similar to Egyptian. Agesilaus entrusted a copy of the inscription to Eudoxus of Cnidos, who sent it to King Nectanabis of Egypt. The Egyptian priest Chonophis spent three days deciphering the inscription. [227]

The inscription contained religious material. The ancient script is believed to be Cretan hieroglyphs, written by a priest who migrated from Crete to Ocaleae with Rhadamanthys. [228]

9 Personality of Heracles

As a boy, Heracles was so handsome that he was chosen for the priesthood, an occupation reserved for beautiful boys. He was also exceptionally large, strong, and athletic. [229]

Apollodorus, a writer from the 2nd century AD, reported that Heracles was 4 cubits (approximately 185 cm) tall at the age of 13. [230]

However, the 5th-century BC lyric poet Pindar and the 4th-century BC philosopher Dicaearchus report that Heracles was short in stature. [231]

Also, Hieronymus and the 4th-century BC philosopher Dicaearchus describe Heracles as having a dark, muscular body, a hooked nose, sharp eyes, and long, straight hair. [232]

Contrary to the exaggerated legends popularized, Heracles was not violent or cruel, but rather had a compassionate heart.

This is evident in the treatment of Erginus in the battle with the Minyans, where he lost his father Amphitryon, and Augeas in the battle with Elis, where he lost his half-brother Iphicles. [233]

Furthermore, Heracles was not ambitious. If he had been, it is likely that he would have ruled all of Greece. Eurystheus of Mycenae, seeing Heracles' lack of ambition, did not take any action while Heracles was alive. However, in the generation of his sons, he attacked Heracles' sons in an attempt to nip any unrest in the bud and prevent a reversal of the situation. [234]

Heracles recognized Eurystheus as the legitimate successor of Perseus and was careful not to challenge his authority. Eurystheus also refused Elis's request to hand over Heracles to him, instead sending him away from Tiryns to protect him. [235]

However, Eurystheus apparently did not anticipate Heracles' subsequent exploits, and his sense of crisis gradually grew. [236]

Heracles also had no desire to rule. He never fought to dominate others. He listened to the cries of those who had been unjustly removed from their posts or unjustly attacked, and sided with them. Heracles listened to the voices of those whose safe passage along the roads was threatened, and did his utmost to restore public order.

It is said that during Heracles' three years in Lydia, evil flourished and misdeeds were rampant in Greece. [237]

After his death, Heracles was ranked among the gods, and the fact that many people claimed to be his sons speaks volumes about the immense reputation he enjoyed at the time.

10 Ancient sources presenting the True Image of Heracles

While many ancient sources featuring Heracles are filled with absurd fiction, the 1st-century BC historian Diodorus Siculus provides a detailed, chronological account of Heracles' life.

His source is Matris of Thebes, who wrote a hymn to Heracles. [238]

11 Finally

While many consider Heracles a mythical figure, I believe he was a historical figure.

As we have seen, Heracles' life can be traced year by year.

Heracles' story is consistent with the legends of Theseus, king of Athens, and many other figures.

End