1 Introduction

The Greeks called the peninsula, which appeared like a large island to the west, Hesperia. [1]

Hesperia was the Italian peninsula, inhabited by the Oenotrians. [2]

The 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias wrote that Italy was the first Greek overseas colony. [3]

The primary source of information about the Bronze Age Italian peninsula is Antiochus, son of Xenophanes, a historian who wrote about Italy and Sicily. [4]

Antiochus lived in Syracuse, Sicily, in the 5th century BC. [5]

Pausanias, the 1st-century AD geographer Strabo, and the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus all reference Antiochus's works. [6]

This chapter describes the Bronze Age history of the Italian peninsula, Lipara, Sardinia, and Sicily. No Bronze Age traditions have been found for Cyrnus, north of Sardinia.

2 First Migration

2.1 First migrants

The first Greeks to arrive in the Italian peninsula were led by two sons of Lycaon, Oenotrus and Peucetius. [7]

Lycaon was the son of Pelasgus, the son of Niobe, daughter of Phoroneus, founder of Argos. [8]

Pelasgus was the progenitor of the Pelasgians, and the people led by Oenotrus and Peucetius were Pelasgians. [9]

2.2 Causes of Migration

In 1635 BC, a dispute arose among the descendants of Argus, son of Niobe, in Argos.

Tiryns, son of Argus, migrated southeast from Argos and founded Tiryns.[10]

Epidaurus, son of Argus, migrated east from Argos and founded Epidaurus.[11]

The two sons of Lycaon, Oenotrus and Peucetius, migrated from Argos to the Italian peninsula.[12]

2.3 Settlement of Oenotrus and Peucetius

In 1635 BC, Oenotrus and Peucetius migrated from Argos to southern Italian peninsula.

Peucetius settled in the southeastern part of the Italian peninsula. [13]

The people who settled with Peucetius were called Peucetians (or Peucetii, Poedicli), and the region came to be called Peucetia. [14]

Oenotrus settled in the southwestern part of the Italian peninsula. [15]

Oenotrus lived at the high point where three peaks meet near the Acheron River. His companions expanded their settlements near the coast, founding Pandosia (present-day Mendicino) as their center. [16]

The people who settled with Oenotrus were called Oenotrians (or Oenotri), and the region came to be called Oenotria. [17]

2.4 Derivation from the Oenotrians

During the reign of Italus, likely Oenotrus' grandson, the Oenotrians expanded their territory from Pandosia to the Laus River, more than 60 km north. Italus was a wise leader, and his people came to be called Italians. [18]

Italus had two sons, Morges and Ausonus (or Auson). [19]

Sicelus, the ancestor of the Sicels, is also likely his son. [20]

Thucydides records Italus as king of the Sicels. [21]

In 1520 BC, Sicelus migrated to the central part of the Italian peninsula. [22]

In 1520 BC, Ausonus migrated south of the Acheron River and founded Tempsa. [23]

In 1520 BC, Morges migrated to the southwestern part of the Italian peninsula. [24]

The peoples led by Sicelus, Ausonus, and Morges became known as Sicels, Ausones, and Morgetes, respectively. [25]

2.5 Expansion of the Ausones' territory

In 1400 BC, Liparus, son of Auson, descendant of Ausonus, son of Italus, was driven out by his brothers and migrated from the Italian peninsula to the island northeast of Sicily. The island was called Melogonis or Meligunis, but it came to be known as Lipara after him. [26]

In 1365 BC, Aeolus, son of Melanippe, migrated from Metabum (later Metapontium) in southern Italian peninsula to Lipara and married Cyane, daughter of Liparus. [27]

In 1364 BC, Liparus, aided by Aeolus, migrated from Lipara to the vicinity of Surrentum near Neapolis. [28]

Consequently, the Ausonians expanded their territory northward, and the sea west of the Italian peninsula came to be called the Ausonian Sea, while the peninsula itself was named Ausonia. [29]

Strabo questioned why a sea unrelated to the Ausonians came to bear their name, but the above sequence of events explains it. [30]

2.6 Settlement in Reatine

The Ausones expanded their settlement near Reate, located in the highlands of the Apennines in central Italian peninsula. Three large groups of Ausones migrated there:

1) The first group settled in Lista, near Amiternum, east of Reate. [31]

2) The second group settled around Cutilia, east-southeast of Reate. [32]

3) The third group, led by Sancus, settled in Testruna, near Amiternum. [33]

All three groups shared a common ancestor: Quirinus, the progenitor of the Romans. [34]

2.7 Merging with the Pelasgians

In 1389 BC, after these groups had settled, another group came over the Apennine Mountains from the Adriatic Sea side. They were the Pelasgians, who had fled Thessaly, pursued by the sons of Deucalion. Their leader was Janus, son of Nanas, who had lived in Perrhaebia in northern Thessaly. [35]

The Pelasgians led by Janus encamped near Cutilia, east of Reate, and confronted the second group residing there. [36]

Both groups shared Niobe, daughter of Phoroneus, son of Inachus of Argos, as a common ancestor. Oenotrus, ancestor of the Ausones, had departed Argos in 1635 BC, 246 years prior. The family of Larisa, daughter of Pelasgus son of Triopas, and the ancestor of Janus, had migrated from Argos to Thessaly in 1560 BC, 171 years prior.

Though their languages had diverged due to contact with different peoples and independent linguistic evolution since leaving Argos, they likely still understood each other.

At that time, the area around Reatine was scattered with settlements of the Umbrians, the earliest inhabitants of the Italian peninsula, and the Sicels, who had migrated from southern Italian peninsula to the central part of the peninsula. [37]

The second group accepted the Pelasgians led by Janus, cohabiting with them and making them allies in their battles against the Umbrians and Sicels. [38]

2.8 Further confluence

Sancus, leading the third group, drove out the first group residing in nearby Lista and expanded his settlement. The first group from Lista fled to join the second group around Cutilia, where they settled together. [39]

Sancus then attacked Cutilia, where the first and second groups coexisted with Pelasgians who had migrated from Thessaly. However, through marriage alliances and the conclusion of agreements, the two sides avoided serious hostilities. [40]

The marriage alliance was the union of Olistene, daughter of Janus, and Sabus, son of Sancus. The agreement was to fight together against the indigenous Umbrians and Sicels as a common enemy. [41]

Through this marriage, Janus became one of the gods of Rome and gave his name to the first month of the year. [42]

2.9 Name of the Group

The group of Sancus grew in power during the reign of his son Sabus and came to be called the Sabines after Sabus's name. [43]

Meanwhile, the group other than Sancus's had no specific name. Later writers called them the Aborigines. [44]

The Aborigines were said to be named for living in the mountains and were a group of wanderers who had gathered from many places.[45]

Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote, "The Aborigines were Greeks who came to Italy from the Peloponnesus and Thessaly." [46]

2.10 Expansion from Reatine

Sabus and Janus's daughter Olistene bore at least four sons, Modius, Saturnus, Janus, and Picus, and a daughter, Ops. [47]

In 1335 BC, Modius (or Fabidius) migrated south from Cutilia and founded Cures in the land between the coast and the interior. [48]

In 1330 BC, Saturnus led the Pelasgians to settle near the mouth of the Tiber River and founded Saturnia. [49]

In 1330 BC, Janus married Jaturuna, daughter of Vulturnus, settled near the mouth of the Tiber River, and founded the Janiculum. [50]

The name Vulturnus referred to both the river flowing into the Tyrrhenian Sea near Neapolis, slightly closer to Rome, and the town situated near its mouth. [51]

Jaturuna's father Vulturnus is presumed to have been the Ausones and a leader of the Aborigines.

In 1335 BC, Picus migrated across the Apennine Mountains seeking settlement on the Adriatic Sea side.

Picus' settlement was called Picentine, and its inhabitants were known as Picentini. [52]

Picus was named from the Latin word for the woodpecker bird. [53]

Near Testruna, where Sancus first settled, was an oracle of Mars, the god of war. This connection stemmed from the woodpecker (picus), with its sturdy beak capable of piercing even hard oak, and the spear (quiris) wielded by the war god. [54]

Sancus' ancestor Quirinus was a master of the spear. After his death, Quirinus was revered by the people as a god of war, and the woodpecker, with its beak as sharp as a spearhead that could pierce even a shield, was cherished as a sacred bird. [55]

2.11 Descendants of Janus, son of Nanas

Janus, son of Nanas, who led the Pelasgians in migration from Thessaly, had a son named Aethex in addition to his daughter Olistene, and Aethex had a son named Faunus. [56]

In 1340 BC, Faunus, together with the Aborigines, made an expedition from Cutilia to Croton, northwest of there, drove out the Umbrians, and gained control of the entire region around Lake Trasimene. [57]

In 1315 BC, Maleus, son of Janus, son of Sabus, moved from the Janiculum, which his father had founded, to a location near the coast and founded Regis Villa. [58]

In 1300 BC, Arnus, son of Faunus, was driven from the area around Lake Trasimene by the Maeonians led by Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, who had migrated to the Italian peninsula from Lydia. [59]

The Maeonians led by Tyrrhenus also expelled the Pelasgians who lived in Regis Villa, Agylla, Alsium, Pisae, and other towns. The expelled Pelasgians fled to Sicily. [60]

2.12 Descendants of Saturnus, son of Sabus

Saturnus, founder of Saturnia, is said to have first introduced agriculture in Latium, with spelt being the first grain cultivated. [61]

When Saturnus' son Picus came of age, the Maeonians led by Tyrrhenus migrated and expelled the Pelasgians who had settled on the right bank near the Tiber estuary from Thessaly. [62]

In 1299 BC, Picus succeeded Saturnus and married Venilia, daughter of Janus. Venilia was Picus' cousin. [63]

In 1295 BC, Picus migrated southeast from Saturnia and founded Laurentum near the coast.[64]

In 1262 BC, Picus' son Faunus succeeded his father and married his sister Fatua Fauna.[65]

Faunus also had a son, Acis, with his second wife Symaethis. [66]

In 1218 BC, Faunus was succeeded by his son Latinus, born to his third wife Marica. [67]

Latinus married Amata, and they had a daughter named Lavinia. [68]

During Latinus' reign, the clan came to be called the Latins, though Faunus was the founder of the Latins. [69]

3 Migrations by the Massive Tsunami

In 1390 BC, a massive eruption occurred on Thera (present-day Santorini), located north of Crete, triggering a tsunami in the Aegean Sea.[70]

This tsunami caused large-scale population movements.

3.1 Migrations from Thessaly

3.1.1 Migration of Dius

Dius, a Pelasgian, living in coastal Thessaly, lost his homeland by the tsunami and attacked Itonus on the western shore of the Pagasetic Gulf. Dius carried off Melanippe, wife of Itonus, son of Amphictyon, as spoils of war. [71]

Itonus' father Amphictyon rallied his kin in Locris and Thessaly to expel the Pelasgians from Thessaly. Dius migrated with Melanippe to Metapontium in southern Italian peninsula. [72]

Melanippe bore Aeolus and Boeotus in Metapontium. [73]

Aeolus married Cyane, daughter of Liparus who lived on Lipara, an island northeast of Sicily, and ruled the surrounding islands.[74]

Boeotus returned with his mother Melanippe from the Italian peninsula to Arne in Thessaly, succeeding his grandfather Aeolus.[75]

3.1.2 Migration of Janus

The Pelasgians who lived in Perrhaebia, northern Thessaly, migrated to the Italian peninsula under the leadership of Janus, passing through Dodona. [76]

Janus is thought to be a descendant of Triopas's son Pelasgus's daughter Larisa who migrated from Argos to Thessaly in 1560 BC. [77]

During the reign of Nanas, son of Teutamides, son of Amyntor, son of Phrastor, son of Pelasgus, son of Larisa, the Pelasgians living in Thessaly migrated to various regions. [78]

In 1389 BC, Janus led the Pelasgians from the east coast of the Italian peninsula over the Apennine Mountains to the mountainous region on the peninsula's west side, settling near Cutilia in Reatine. The Pelasgians under Janus were received and lived among the Ausones, who had migrated to the land some time before them. [80]

3.1.3 Migration outside of Dius and Janus

Some Pelasgians who fled Thessaly migrated to northeastern Italian peninsula, founding Spina south of the mouth of the Padus River. [81]

The Pelasgians also founded Ravenna, located slightly south of Spina. [82]

Furthermore, the Pelasgians founded cities along the western coast of central Italian peninsula. Agylla (later Caere), Alsium, and Pisae were towns founded by the Pelasgians. [83]

3.2 Migration from Boeotia

Messapus led a group of immigrants from Hyria in Boeotia to settle in Peucetia, in the southeastern part of the Italian peninsula. [84]

Messapus is presumed to be the son of Hyrieus, who was the son of Megassares and Alcyone, daughter of Orchomenus. [85]

The region Messapus settled was called Messapia.[86]

Antoninus Liberalis records Messapus as Illyrian, while Solinus and Pliny record him as Greek.[87]

4 Migration from Egypt

In 1341 BC, Danae, daughter of Acrisius, led a migration from Egypt to Sardinia.[88]

This migration is presumed to have been caused by warfare in Egypt, similar to the migrations of Danaus and Cadmus. After Danae's migration, Egypt ceases to appear in Greek traditions.

When Danae emigrated, Pharaoh Amenhotep IV of the 18th Dynasty reigned in Egypt.[89]

The ships carrying Danae's emigrants were driven off course by strong southerly winds en route to Sardinia and drifted ashore on the west coast of central Italian peninsula. [90]

Danae's husband Pilumnus died, and Danae, daughter of the King of Argos, became the central figure in founding Ardea southeast of Rome. [91]

At that time, Sicels were scattered across Latium, where Danae built the town. Soon after, the Sabines emerged from the mountains and founded Saturnia and Janiculum. [92]

Danae's immigrant group included Achaeans and Pelasgians who had migrated from Argos to Egypt, and they were similar to the Sabines in language and customs.

It is presumed that the people who migrated with Danae from Egypt taught wheat cultivation to Saturnus, son of Sabus of Saturnia. [93]

Danae had another son besides Perseus, named Daunus, who succeeded Ardea. [94]

Turnus, leader of the Rutuli who fought and died against Aeneas, was a descendant of Daunus. [95]

5 Migration from Lydia

In 1300 BC, the Maeonians, led by Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, migrated from Lydia to central Italian peninsula. [96]

Herodotus states famine was the cause, but the historical facts were as follows. [97]

5.1 Situation Before Migration

In 1390 BC, the Pelasgians living in Thessaly were expelled by the sons of Deucalion and migrated to various regions. Some settled on islands such as Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, and Imbros.[98]

Additionally, Pelasgians who crossed from these islands to the mainland settled in Lydia. [99]

According to Hittite texts, the region where the Pelasgians settled was called Arzawa.[100]

When the Pelasgians, led by Manes, likely son of Silenus, arrived there, Arzawa lacked a powerful leader.[101]

The Pelasgians coexisted with the indigenous people, and Manes became king of the land.

Manes appears in Hittite texts under the name Kupanta-Kurunta, King of Arzawa. [102]

5.2 Causes of Migration

In 1325 BC, Tantalus, who lived near Mount Ida in the northwestern Anatolian peninsula, was driven out by Ilus of Ilium and migrated to Lydia (part of Arzawa).[103]

At that time, the king of Arzawa was Maskhuiluwa, son of Tarhuntaradu. [104]

Tantalus expelled Maskhuiluwa and became king of Arzawa. [105]

Maskhuiluwa fled to seek refuge with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. [106]

During the reign of the Hittite king Mursili II, Arzawa was attacked and occupied by the Hittite army. [107]

5.3 Migration to Lemnos

In 1318 BC, the Maeonians who fought alongside Tantalus against the Hittite army were expelled from Lydia. Eighteen years passed between Arzawa's conquest by the Hittites and the appearance of the Maeonians, led by Tyrrhenus, on the Italian peninsula. During this period, the Maeonians are presumed to have resided on Lemnos for the following reasons.

The Maeonians later migrated to the Italian peninsula and changed their name to Tyrrhenians. [108]

The following elements connect Lemnos and the Italian peninsula.

The island of Elba in the Tyrrhenian Sea was called Aethalia, the ancient name of Lemnos. [109]

Of the four labyrinths of the ancient world, besides those in Egypt and Crete, there were labyrinths in Lemnos and Etruria. [110]

Lemnos was also called the Tyrrhenian Island. [111]

5.4 Migration from Lemnos to Italian peninsula

In 1300 BC, the Maeonians, led by Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, migrated from Lemnos to central Italian peninsula. [112]

The following are possible reasons why Tyrrhenus chose Italian peninsula, far from Lemnos, as his destination:

5.4.1 Hearings from Telchines

It is believed that Tyrrhenus's voyage guide was Telchines, known as the Son of the Sea and a skilled navigator. [113]

In 1425 BC, the Telchines, who lived in Rhodes, then called Telchinis, were expelled from the island by the sons of Rhodes. Some of the Telchines also migrated to Lemnos. [114]

Telchines, skilled in navigation and metallurgy, likely navigated not only the Aegean Sea but also the Tyrrhenian Sea in search of mines. The island of Aethalia, between the Italian peninsula and Cyrnus, is believed to have been one of the islands where they discovered mines.[115]

5.4.2 Heard through Delphi

Agylla, founded by the Pelasgians who migrated from Thessaly in 1390 BC, was so prosperous that they donated a treasury to Delphi. [116]

Word of Agylla's prosperity likely spread throughout Greece as people from around the world visited Delphi to seek oracles. [117]

5.5 Tyrrhenus and his descendants after the migration

The Maeonians, led by Tyrrhenus, expelled the Umbrians and Pelasgians and established colonies. [118]

Both the Maeonians and Pelasgians lived in Thessaly 90 years earlier, but the two did not speak the same language. [119]

The Maeonians, who settled in the Italian peninsula, changed their name to Tyrrhenians after Tyrrhenus, and their settlement came to be called Tyrrhenia. [120]

The Tyrrhenians were also sometimes called Tusci because of their ritual sacrifices. The Romans called them Etrusci and the region they inhabited Etruria. [121]

During the time of Pausanias, the area from Pisae on the west coast of the Italian peninsula to the Tiber River was apparently called Tyrrhenia. At the height of their power, their settlements extended to the Padus River near the eastern base of the Italian peninsula and Ravenna. [122]

After the death of Tyrrhenus, the Tyrrhenians lacked a strong leader, and each town lacked unity. They were defeated by neighboring tribes in military battles, abandoned their land, and became pirates. [123]

5.6 Major towns of Tyrrhenia

Tyrrhenus is said to have founded 12 towns. Tyrrhenia included the following towns: [124]

5.6.1 Saturnia (present-day Rome)

Saturnia was founded by Saturnus, son of Sabus, and was inhabited by Pelasgians who had migrated from Thessaly. [125]

During the reign of Saturnus' son Dercennus, the city was attacked by the Tyrrhenians and killed in battle.

Saturnia was inhabited by Tyrrhenians, but they were also driven out by the Sicels. [126]

5.6.2 Caere (present-day Cerveteri)

The most powerful Tyrrhenian town was Caere, located west of Saturnia. [127]

Caere was founded by the Pelasgians who migrated from Thessaly and was called Agylla, but was captured by the Tyrrhenians. [128]

5.6.3 Alsium (present-day Ladispoli)

Alsium was inhabited by Pelasgians who migrated from Thessaly, but was expelled by the Tyrrhenians. [129]

5.6.4 Tarquinii (present-day Tarquinia)

Tarquinii was founded by Tarco, a general of Tyrrhenus, who expelled the Pelasgians who migrated from Thessaly. [130]

5.6.5 Regis Villa (present-day Montalto di Castro)

Regis Villa was inhabited by Maleus, a Pelasgian who migrated from Thessaly, but was driven out by the Tyrrhenians. [131]

5.6.6 Pisae (present-day Pisa)

In 1389 BC, Pelasgians who migrated from Thessaly drove out the Ligurians and founded Pisae. [132]

In 1300 BC, the Pelasgians of Pisae were driven out by the Tyrrhenians. [133]

Strabo tells us that the natives of Pisa, who were led by Nestor to Troy, wandered and founded Pisae, and the inhabitants of the town were called Pylians. [134]

However, the following facts suggest that the story of the founding of Pisae is a fiction.

1) According to legend, Nestor returned safely to Pylus.

2) It is likely that the inhabitants of Pylus were called Pylians because there were more people from Pylus than from Pisa. If so, the founders must have been from Pylus, not Pisa.

In 1126 BC, the Pelasgians living around Larissa were driven from their land by people who migrated from Locris to Asia Minor and founded Cyme. [135]

Led by a descendant of Teutamus, the Pelasgians migrated to the Italian peninsula and settled in Pisae, where the Tyrrhenians lived. [136]

It is likely that the Tyrrhenians accepted as co-residents the people who had migrated from Asia Minor, where their ancestors had once lived.

5.6.7 Croton (present-day Cortona)

In 1340 BC, Faunus, son of Aethex, led an expedition with the Aborigines to Croton, northwest of Cutilia, expelling the Umbrians and gaining control of the Lake Trasimene region. [137]

In 1300 BC, Faunus' son, Arnus, was driven out of the Lake Trasimene region by the Tyrrhenians. [138]

6 Migration from Troad

6.1 First Trojan War

In 1295 BC, a succession dispute broke out in Ilium on the Trojan War, and Phaenodamas and his sons were killed by Laomedon. [139]

The descendants of Assaracus (or Asarakos), son of Tros, who supported Phaenodamas, migrated from Dardania to various places.

Phaenodamas' daughters fled from Troad to Sicily and settled on the Crimisus River in the northwestern part of the island. [140]

Phaenodamas' daughter, Egesta, had a son named Aegestus (or Acestes). [141]

6.2 Second Trojan War

In 1244 BC, Laomedon, son of Ilus, died. Priam, son of Laomedon, succeeded him as king of Wilusa (Troy). [142]

Anchises, son of Capys, son of Assaracus, expelled Priam from Ilium and installed Aegestus, son of Egesta, who had been summoned from Sicily, as king. [143]

Ilium was subsequently recaptured by Priam, aided by the Hittite army.

Anchises and his allies fled to various locations.

6.2.1 Philoctetes' Migration to Southern Italian peninsula

In 1244 BC, Philoctetes, son of Poeas, who sided with Anchises, returned to Meliboea in Thessaly. However, civil unrest broke out, and he accompanied Anchises to Sicily. [144]

Philoctetes separated from Anchises in southern Italian peninsula and settled in Macalla, Croton. [145]

Philoctetes founded Petelia near Croton. [146]

In the Trojan War, Philoctetes accompanied Agamemnon on his expedition to Troy.

However, in the story, Philoctetes was acting together with his enemy, Aegestus the Trojan. [147]

6.2.2 Elymus' Migration to Southern Italian peninsula

In 1244 BC, Elymus, son of Anchises, fled from Troad and settled in southern Italian peninsula with Philoctetes.[148]

The people who followed Elymus came to be called Elymians.[149]

6.2.3 Anchises' Migration to Sicily

In 1244 BC, Anchises fled to Sicily, guided by Aegestus.[150]

Many people from the Scamander River basin accompanied Anchises.[151]

7 Migration from Arcadia

7.1 Departure from Arcadia

In 1240 BC, conflict arose in Pallantium, west of Tegea in Arcadia. Evander, son of Themis, defeated in the conflict, sought a new land.[152]

Evander belonged to the Parrhasians, who had existed since the founding of Argos, and descended from the house of Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, who had expanded Argos' settlements into Arcadia.[153]

Evander's migrant group traveled from Tegea along the Alpheius River, taking the road leading to Olympia, and headed toward Cyllene. Along the way, Evander incorporated into his colony those who had participated in Heracles' attack on Elis. These were the Epeans of Dyme in Achaea and the Arcadians of Pheneus.[154]

Evander's colonists set sail from Cyllene, the outer harbor of Elis.[155]

7.2 Migration to Latium

Evander's colonists sailed around the Italian peninsula clockwise, ascended the Tiber River in the peninsula's center, and landed on the site of future Rome. They settled near the hill previously called Velia, later named Palatium. [156]

Herilus, who held the region east of Rome, challenged Evander to battle but was repelled. [157]

Evander's colonists included many seasoned warriors who had participated in the expeditions of Heracles, and their military strength surpassed that of the Ausonians. [158]

Faunus of Laurentum, who was suffering at the hands of the barbarous Sicels at the time, accepted Evander as an ally rather than an enemy. [159]

Catillus the Arcadian, who commanded Evander's fleet, founded a city northeast of Rome with his two brothers, Coras and Tiburnus, naming it Tibur.

7.3 Descendants of Evander

Evander married Nicostrate, and they had a son named Pallas.[161]

Nicostrate was a prophetess who delivered divine oracles in a trance, and she was also called Carmenta.[162]

Evander's mother, Themis, was also a prophetess, known as Carmenta. [163]

Pelasgus's son Lycaon's son Pallas, ancestor of Themis, had a daughter named Chryse. She possessed traditions concerning a mysterious religion. The art of prophecy appears to have been passed down through the generations to women in the lineage of Pallas, son of Lycaon. [164]

In 1182 BC, Pallas, son of Evander, fought alongside Aeneas and died in battle against Turnus of the Rutulians.[165]

In 1154 BC, the Arcadians who had migrated with Evander settled in Alba, founded by Ascanius, son of Aeneas. [166]

However, some Arcadians continued to live near the Palatine Hill. Faustulus, foster father of Romulus, founder of Rome, was one of them. [167]

7.4 Evander's Achievements

The Arcadians who migrated with Evander brought the alphabet to Italy, greatly contributing to Rome's prosperity. [168]

In the 2nd century AD, the 15th Roman Emperor Antoninus recognized Evander's achievements and granted autonomy and tax exemption to the inhabitants of Pallantium in Arcadia, his homeland. [169]

Subsequently, the inhabitants of Pallantium erected a statue of Evander. [170]

8 Migration from the Italian Peninsula to Sicily

In 1240 BC, Faunus of Latium, aided by Evander, defeated Cacus, son of Vulcanus (or Vulcan), leader of the Sicels. The Sicels fled from central peninsula to the territory of the Oenotrians in southern peninsula. [171]

8.1 Migration of the Sicels

The Sicels, led by Straton, were driven by the Oenotrians and migrated to Sicily.[172]

At this time, the number of Sicels who crossed to the island was considerable, and the island, previously called Sicania, came to be known as Sicily.[173]

8.2 Migration of the Elymians

The Elymians, led by Elymus, fled from Troad and settled in the southwestern Italian peninsula. They were later driven out by the Oenotrians and migrated to Sicily. [174]

9 Migration from Acarnania

In 1237 BC, Heracles led an expedition to Thesprotia.[175]

The Teleboans, who lived in Taphos in Acarnania, migrated to the west coast of the Italian peninsula under the leadership of Oebalus, son of Telon.[176]

Oebalus founded Capreae on an island near Neapolis.[177]

Capreae became famous as the retreat of the second Roman emperor, Tiberius Caesar. [178]

The Teleboans who founded Capreae were a branch of the Leleges, named after Lelex, founder of Lacedaemon. [179]

Lelex, son of Libya, was the uncle of Danaus, and the Leleges were a branch of the Pelasgians. [180]

Before Oebalus, Liparus, son of Auson, migrated to the vicinity of Surrentum near Capreae; Liparus too was a Pelasgian. [181]

The Pelasgians inhabiting Acarnania and the western coast of the Italian peninsula appear to have been linked through trade activities.

10 Migration from Crete

After Minos' death, it is presumed that no strong leader emerged in Crete, and civil war persisted.

The following migrations occurred from Crete to the Italian peninsula.

10.1 Migration of Iapyx

In 1235 BC, Iapyx, son of Daedalus, led a group of immigrants from Crete to settle in Messapia in southeastern Italian peninsula.[182]

Herodotus relates that Iapyx founded Hyria (modern Oria).[183]

However, the name Hyria likely originated with Messapus, who settled in the region before him.

Messapus' grandfather Megassares had founded Hyria in Boeotia.[184]

The region settled by Iapyx became known as Iapygia, its inhabitants as Iapygians (or Iapyges), and the cape as the Iapygian Cape.[185]

The Iapygians also expanded their settlements into the southwestern part of the peninsula.[186]

10.2 Migration of Botton

Botton, who was among the emigrants of Iapyx, formed a new group and continued the journey, settling near what later became Pella in Macedonia.[187]

The people led by Botton came to be called the Bottiaeans. [188]

Among Botton's colonists were descendants of the youths sent from Athens as tribute to Minos in Crete. [189]

10.3 Migration of Idomeneus

Among Iapyx's colonists was also Idomeneus, son of Deucalion, son of Minos.

Tradition holds that Idomeneus participated in the Trojan expedition led by Agamemnon.

However, tradition also states that Idomeneus migrated from Crete to Calabria.[190]

Calabria is another name for Messapia or Iapygia, and Idomeneus is thought to have been among the migration group of Iapyx.[191]

10.4 Migration of Cleolaus

Cleolaus, son of Minos, who was among the emigrants of Iapyx, led a new group of migrants and settled in Apulia, the eastern part of the Italian peninsula. Cleolaus named his tribe the Daunii after his son Daunus. [192]

Euippe, daughter of Daunus, married Diomedes, son of Tydeus, who had led the Aetolians in their migration to Apulia. [193]

11 Migration from Mycenae

In 1190 BC, Halaesus, son of Agamemnon, migrated to the Italian peninsula. He settled at Falerii, located north of Rome along the Flaminian Way.[194]

The area around Falerii was held by the Rutulians, who lived in Ardea in Latium. The Rutulian king Turnus was a descendant of Danae, mother of Perseus, founder of Mycenae. [195]

It is thought the Rutulians invited Halaesus to gain an ally against hostile neighboring powers.

In 1182 BC, war broke out between the Latins and the Rutulians. Halaesus fought on the Rutulian side and was killed by Pallas, son of Evander. [196]

After Halaesus' death, the Mycenaeans residing in Falerii likely returned to Mycenae. Recent archaeological excavations have uncovered artifacts dating to the 12th century BC indicating connections between Mycenae and Italy.

12 Migration from Athens

When Priam, son of Laomedon, died in 1188 BC, the sons of Antenor took possession of Ilium. [197]

Priam's son Hector attempted to recapture Ilium with reinforcements from the Achaeans, but was defeated in battle, and the Achaeans fled to various locations. [198]

In 1186 BC, some Athenians who had sided with Hector fled to the southern Italian peninsula and settled in Scylletium. [199]

13 Migration from Aetolia

13.1 Migration of Diomedes

In 1184 BC, Diomedes, son of Tydeus, after returning from Troy to Argos, migrated via Aetolia to Apulia in the eastern Italian peninsula. [200]

After migrating, Diomedes married Euippe, daughter of Daunus, ruler of Apulia. [201]

Daunus was the son of Cleolaus, son of Minos.[202]

Cleolaus settled in the Italian peninsula from Crete alongside Iapyx, son of Daedalus. Cleolaus named his tribe the Daunii after his son.[203]

Diomedes founded Argyrippe, Canusium, and Sipus.[204]

13.2 End of Diomedes

Strabon presents four versions of Diomedes's end. [205]

1) Diomedes was recalled to his hometown of Argos and died there.

2) Diomedes died in Apulia.

3) Diomedes disappeared on a desert island off the coast of Apulia.

4) Diomedes died in Heneti, at the very heart of the Adriatic Sea.

The Aetolians, who migrated with Diomedes, migrated southeast and founded Brundisium. However, they were driven from there by the Apulians. [206]

This suggests that there was conflict between Diomedes and the indigenous people.

It is also said that Daunus organized a funeral games for Diomedes, in which the Greeks were killed. [207]

The 4th-century BC philosopher Aristotle reports that Diomedes' companions were shipwrecked near Diomedeia when he was murdered by the local king. [208]

In Diomedeia in Apulia, there was a temple to Diomedes and his tomb under a plane tree. [209]

Diomedeia is thought to be present-day San Domino in the Tremiti Islands.

From the above, it is believed that Diomedes's end was as follows:

There was a conflict between Diomedes and Daunus, and Diomedes was killed in a surprise attack. Diomedes' companions fled to Diomedeia and buried his body on the island.

The 12th-century AD rhetorician Tzetzes wrote that Daunus killed Diomedes. [210]

14 Migration from Sicily

In 1184 BC, Aeneas, son of Anchises, set sail from Sicily and landed near Laurentum in central Italian peninsula.[211]

At that time, Aeneas was about 40 years old and had a son, Ascanius.[212]

The ruler of Laurentum was Latinus, son of Faunus, in the 35th year of his reign. [213]

In 1182 BC, Aeneas married Latinus' daughter Lavinia. This marriage caused a war with Turnus, king of the Rutulians. Latinus was killed in battle, and Aeneas succeeded to Laurentum. [214]

In 1179 BC, Aeneas was killed in battle against the Rutulians, and his son Ascanius succeeded him in Laurentum. [215]

Many traditions recount Aeneas as if he were born in Troad.

However, Aeneas was born in Sicily.

Tradition holds that Aeneas fled from Troad to Sicily with Anchises.

However, Anchises migrated to Sicily in 1244 BC, and Aeneas was born after that. [216]

15 History of Lipara

15.1 Migration from the Peninsula

In 1400 BC, Liparus, son of Auson, was driven from the Italian peninsula by his brothers and migrated to an island northeast of Sicily. The island came to be called Lipara after him. [217]

Until then, Lipara had been called Meligunis. [218]

15.2 Migration from Southern Peninsula

In 1365 BC, Aeolus, son of Melanippe, migrated to Lipara from Metapontium in southern Italian peninsula and married Cyane, daughter of Liparus. Aeolus' son Astyochus succeeded him in Lipara. [219]

15.3 Migration to the Peninsula

In 1364 BC, Liparus, aided by Aeolus, migrated to the vicinity of Surrentum near Cape Athenaeum in the Gulf of Crater (present-day Gulf of Naples).[220]

In 1340 BC, Iocastus (or Jocastus), son of Aeolus, migrated to southern Italian peninsula and founded Rhegium. [221]

In 1340 BC, Misenus, son of Aeolus, migrated to Parthenope near Cumae.[222]

15.4 Liparus's Tribe

The following points suggest Liparus's tribe was the Ausones, a branch of the Pelasgians.

1) The 2nd-century BC historian Polybius records that the Ausones inhabited the area around the Gulf of Crater. [223]

2) Liparus' father Auson shared the same name as Auson, son of Italus, the progenitor of the Ausones. [224]

15.5 Migration to Sicily

In 1340 BC, the sons of Aeolus of Lipara migrated to Sicily.

Two sons of Aeolus, Pheraemon and Androcles, migrated to Sicily and settled in the northern part of the island. [225]

Xuthus, son of Aeolus, migrated to eastern Sicily, and that region came to be called Xuthia. [226]

Agathyrnus, son of Aeolus, migrated to northern Sicily and founded Agathyrnus. [227]

16 History of Sardinia

16.1 Migration from Egypt

In 1390 BC, Sardus, son of Maceris, led a group of migrants from Egypt to Ichnussa on the western side of the Italian peninsula.[228]

Ichnussa came to be called Sardinia after Sardus' name. [229]

When Sardus migrated to the island, indigenous peoples were already present, but they coexisted without conflict. [230]

In southwestern Sardinia stood the “Temple of Father Sardus,” presumed to be Sardus' settlement site. [231]

16.2 Migration from Egypt

After the settlement of Sardus, it was Aristaeus who settled in Sardinia.[232]

Aristaeus was born in Phthiotis, the son of Archander, son of Achaeus, progenitor of the Achaeans, and Cyrene, daughter of Hypseus who lived in Thessaly.[233]

Aristaeus migrated from Phthiotis via Argos to the Nile Delta in Egypt, where he founded Archandropolis with his father Archander. [234]

In 1372 BC, Aristaeus led a colony from Egypt to settle in Sardinia. [235]

Aristaeus founded Caralis east of the settlement of Sardus. [236]

Pausanias relates that Nora, founded after Aristaeus' settlement, was the first city in Sardinia. [237]

16.3 Migration from Iberia

In 1240 BC, Norax, son of Erytheia, daughter of Geryones, migrated to Sardinia and founded the oldest city, Nora, at the southern tip of the island. [238]

Norax is said to have been Iberian. However, he is presumed to have been a descendant of Maceris of Canopus in Egypt, who founded Heracleia at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula and died there. [239]

Norax's homeland was Tartessus, centered around the Tartessus River northwest of Heracleia. [240]

Gadeira (modern-day Cadiz) near the mouth of the Tartessus River and the island opposite it were collectively called Erytheia, where Geryones kept his great herd of cattle. [241]

Geryones was born upstream on the Tartessus River, a location also near the final resting place of Maceris, known as Egyptian Heracles or Phoenician Heracles. Considering that Norax, Geryones' grandson, settled in Sardinia before Iolaus' settlement, Norax is presumed to have been a contemporary of Heracles, son of Amphitryon. [242]

16.4 Migration from Boeotia

After conquering Ephyra in Thesprotia, Heracles, son of Amphitryon, instructed his nephew Iolaus to colonize Sardinia. [243]

In 1236 BC, Iolaus led a colony composed of the grandsons of Thespius, ruler of Thespiae in Boeotia, to settle in Sardinia. [244]

Iolaus established Olbia, settling the colonists alongside the Tyrrhenians already residing in northeastern Sardinia. Afterward, Iolaus returned to Trachis, where Heracles was. [245]

16.5 Migration from Athens

After Heracles' death, Iolaus defeated Eurystheus, King of Mycenae, who had invaded Athens, and protected Heracles' children. [246]

In 1216 BC, having completed his role as guardian of Heracles' children, Iolaus recruited settlers in Athens and led another colony to Sardinia. The Athenians founded Ogryle there.[247]

Iolaus ended his life in Sardinia.[248]

17 History of Sicily

The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Sicanians (or Sicani).[249]

The Sicanians, who lived in Iberia, were driven out by the Ligurians and fled to the island called Trinacria, which came to be known as Sicania.[250]

17.1 First Greeks

In 1340 BC, the sons of Aeolus of Lipara migrated to Sicily.

Pheraemon and Androcles, two sons of Aeolus, settled in northern Sicily.[251]

Xuthus, son of Aeolus, settled in eastern Sicily, and that region came to be called Xuthia. [252]

Aeolus' son Agathyrnus migrated to northern Sicily and founded Agathyrnus. [253]

The people who migrated to Sicily with Aeolus' sons were Pelasgians who had migrated from Thessaly via Metapontium to Lipara. [254]

17.2 Migration from the Central Peninsula

In 1300 BC, the Pelasgians living in Regis Villa, Agylla, Alsium, Pisae, and other towns in central Italian peninsula were driven out by the Tyrrhenians and migrated to Sicily. [255]

17.3 Migration from Troad

In 1295 BC, the daughters of Phaenodamas fled from Troad to Sicily and settled on the banks of the Crimisus River in the northwest of the island.[256]

17.4 Expedition to Troad

In 1244 BC, Aegestus, son of Egesta, daughter of Phaenodamas, launched an expedition from Sicily to Troad.

Aegestus's purpose in this expedition was to fulfill his grandfather's will and become King of Troy. However, Aegestus was defeated in battle against Priam, son of Laomedon, and returned to Sicily. [257]

Afterwards, Aegestus founded Aegesta (or Egesta) in the northwest of the island. [258]

17.5 Migration from Troad

In 1244 BC, Anchises, son of Capys, defeated in battle by Priam, migrated from Troad to Sicily, guided by Aegestus. [259]

17.6 Migration from the southwestern Peninsula

In 1240 BC, the Sicels, Morgetes, and Elymians, who had lived in the southwestern Italian peninsula, migrated to Sicily after being driven out by the Oenotrians. [260]

The Sicels drove the island's original inhabitants, the Sicani, to the western part of the island and settled throughout the entire island. The island, previously called Sicania, came to be known as Sicily. [261]

The leader of the Sicels was either Straton or Sicelus. [262]

The Morgetes founded Morgantium in the inland region of eastern Sicily. [263]

The Elymians founded Elyma (or Eryx) in northwestern Sicily. [264]

17.7 Migration to Acarnania

In 1240 BC, the Pelasgians living in Sicily migrated to Acarnania to escape the turmoil caused by the migrations of the Sicels, Morgetes, and Elymians.[265]

Subsequently, the Pelasgians migrated repeatedly from Acarnania as follows:

In 1188 BC, the Pelasgians invaded Boeotia, which had been left vulnerable by the Trojan expedition, and drove out the Boeotians. [266]

In 1126 BC, the Pelasgians were expelled from Boeotia by the Boeotians, who had returned from Arne in Thessaly, and fled to Athens. [267]

In 1115 BC, the Pelasgians were expelled from Athens and migrated to Lemnos.[268]

In 495 BC, the Pelasgians were driven from Lemnos by Miltiades, son of Cimon, and migrated to the Chalcidice peninsula.[269]

17.8 Migration to the Central Peninsula

In 1184 BC, Aeneas, son of Anchises, migrated from Sicily to the vicinity of Laurentum in central Italian peninsula. [270]

End