Marine Studies (TVET- 2024)

Strand 1: Fisheries and Marine Resources (12 weeks)

Major Learning Outcome: Students are able to demonstrate an understanding of the aquaculture industry including benefits, challenges, and solutions

Sub Strand 1.1: Aquaculture Industry (1.5 weeks)

Key Learning Objective: Students are able to demonstrate an understanding of the aquaculture industry and the marine ecosystem

Nakon are e na kamanena taian notes ikai. Anne mwakoro ikai bon taian main points aika a bon tangira kabarabaraana ke karababaana riki teutana ngkana tao ko maroroakinna ma am ataei, n iriaki ma tabeua examples.

Notes:

What is Aquaculture?

Also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae, and other organisms of value, such as aquatic plants.

Aquaculture is the practice of farming seafood. It’s like agriculture but done with fish, crustaceans, and shellfish. Aquaculture businesses breed and harvest plants and animals in water – freshwater or seawater – and prepare them for human consumption.

Aquaculture already provides over half of all the fish products that we eat in the world. It’s the world’s fastest-growing food-producing sector, and it’s going to play a crucial role in helping to feed a planet with an ever-growing population.

What are the three types of aquaculture environments?

A number of aquaculture practices are used worldwide in three types of environments (freshwater, brackishwater, and marine) for a great variety of culture organisms.

What are the traditional fishing methods in Kiribati?

Traditionally living on what can be sourced from the sea, I-Kiribati have had to become expert sailors and fishers. Traditional fishing methods used by our ancestors ranged from gleaning (or collecting by hand) on reefs for seafood to fishing offshore from sailing canoes for tuna and deeper water fish

Examples of traditional fishing methods:

-etc

What skills do you need to be an aquaculturist?

A working knowledge of basic biology, computers, and the seafood industry is a must. The person in this position should possess competencies in the following areas: aquaculture equipment, pumps, plumbing, carpentry, electronics, basic business management, problem-solving, and research applications.

Aquaculture in Kiribati (promoted by the country's Ministry of Natural Resource Development)

[1] Black pearls have been cultivated by way of longlines holding up to 5000 oysters each.

[2] Seaweed at Tabuaeran, Xmas, Butaritari, and other smaller units

[3] Sea Cucumber, at islands close to or where ‘markets’ are available

[3[ Milkfish cultivation at Butaritari, and mainly at Xmas island,

Environment conditions for Aquaculture enterprises

For Milkfish:

Most juvenile stages tolerate low temperatures of 14 to 18 °C and high temperatures of 38 to 41 °C. In the Philippines wet season (May to October), milkfish pond temperatures range from 25 to 34°C, salinities from 15 to 25 ppt and dissolved oxygen from 4 to 11 ppm.

How to cultivate Milkfish (Procedural methods – part of student research activity)

Culture of milkfish in ponds may be in shallow or deep water systems. Shallow water culture is practiced mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. Milkfish are traditionally cultured in shallow Brackish water ponds in which the growth of benthic algae is encouraged through inorganic or organic fertilization.

Activity: Students to research Method:

For Giant Clams:

Similar to corals, giant clams have been largely affected by global ocean warming. An increase in seawater temperature can also negatively affect giant clams since they also host and strongly depend on symbiotic Symbiodiniaceae to survive

How to cultivate giant clams

To accelerate the breeding of giant clams in the lab, University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute researchers inject them with the hormone serotonin, which rapidly triggers the release of clam sperm, seen here, and the release of eggs minutes later. The mass release of gametes is called broadcast spawning.

Activity: Students to research Method:of cultivation

For Sea Cucumber:

Waters with a depth of less than 2 m and a medium density of seagrass vegetation conditions are good for sea cucumber cultivation because they allow sunlight to reach the substrate to support the growth of seagrass and microalgae, allowing the movement of sea cucumbers on sediments freely but still providing protection.

How to cultivate Sea Cucumber

Preparing ponds for sea cucumber farming includes: drying the pond (using sluices and pumps), removing unwanted predators such as crabs, tilling the sediment to disturb the mud layer (at least 5 cm burial layer), building a net pen at the sluice-gates to exclude predators and prevent sea cucumber from escaping.

Activity: Students to research Method:of cultivation

For Seaweed:

In general, seaweed production requires areas with sufficient nutrients and light for growth and salinity and temperatures that are not limiting to the species being cultivated. The mesotrophic boreal temperate coastal ocean is ideal for growing many species, of which large brown kelp species are most commonly grown

How to cultivate seaweed

The simplest and most common cultivation method is to attach pieces of seaweed to rope lines or nets suspended in the sea, often near the coast. They hang on wooden stakes or on a floating wooden framework dug down into the seabed. Nori, the black seaweed used in sushi, is grown using nets that spores settle onto.

Activity: Students to research Method:of cultivation

Major Activity: Group work: (20% of Course Work). Students are to be grouped into 4 groups; Giant Clam, Seaweed, Milkfish, and Sea Cucumber groups.

Tasks: To prepare a Presentation on the type of aquaculture they have chosen (Use PowerPoint for their presentation).

Sub Strand 1.2: Marine Resource Challenges (3.5 weeks)

Key Learning Outcome: Students are able to demonstrate an understanding of marine resource challenges

Notes: Challenges in Aquaculture

Some challenges in aquaculture that need to be addressed if cultivation practices are not carried out properly:

Environmental impact – is the most important challenge. This means the Loss of biodiversity.
Disease Management - Reduced fertility of wild fish.
Food Production - Loss of sea mammals and fowl targeted by aquaculturists
Water Quality Management - Reduction of water quality

- Increased effluence in local waters resulting in eutrophication (excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen)

How can these challenges be addressed?

Loss of biodiversity: The 5 main biodiversity threats include:
1. Habitat loss

Invasive species
Overexploitation
Pollution
Climate change

Reduced fertility of wild fish:

What is the weakness to aquaculture?

Environmental Impact: - Water Pollution: Aquaculture operations can release excess nutrients, antibiotics, and chemicals into the surrounding water, leading to water pollution. This pollution can have detrimental effects on local ecosystems, impacting water quality and potentially harming other aquatic life.

What are the disadvantages of traditional aquaculture?

Unsustainable? The Challenges of Traditional Aquaculture

Traditional aquaculture can negatively impact the environment in several ways. It often leads to water pollution due to the release of waste products, uneaten feed, and chemicals into the water bodies.

What are the disadvantages of extensive aquaculture?

One of the significant problems with extensive aquaculture is the destruction of natural habitats to make fish and shrimp ponds, etc. It is also highly dependent on the health of the surrounding environment, with any changes impacting the farmed species.

What are the benefits of aquaculture in the country?

Aquaculture: Types, Benefits and Importance (Fish Farming ...

Aquaculture serves different purposes, including food production, restoration of threatened and endangered species populations, wild stock population enhancement, the building of aquariums, and fish cultures and habitat restoration.

What are advantages and disadvantages of aquaculture?

What Are the Top Pros and Cons of Aquaculture?

Pro: Provides Fish for Consumption Without Overfishing. ...

Con: Can Lead to Invasive Species Damaging Ecosystems. ...

Pro: Can Pair With Hydroponic Plant Growth for a Closed System. ...

Con: Can Damage the Local Gene Pool if Farmed Fish Escape

How does aquaculture help economic growth?

In many cases, the more marketable fish are being sold to provide income that is used to purchase other more affordable food items. Fisheries and aquaculture therefore both help to secure nutritious food for rural and coastal populations and alleviate their poverty.

Sub-strand 1.2; Aquaculture: Challenges and Promise (References)

Excerpts taken from: Peter J. Allen (Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Aquaculture; Mississippi State University) & James A. Steeby (Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center, Mississippi State University) © 2011 Nature Education

FOOD AND COST

· Aquaculture is the culture of aquatic organisms, which includes fish, mollusks, crustaceans, algae and plants. People have been involved in different forms of aquaculture for thousands of years, with early documented evidence dating back as far as 500 BC in China (Ling 1977). Today, the practice of aquaculture spans the globe, with the exception of the extreme polar regions.

· Many of the basic goals have not changed significantly, however their methods of achievement have. There are two overarching goals of aquaculture: maximizing growth rate and minimizing production costs. A rapid growth rate minimizes the time to achieve a marketable size and decreases risk.

· The reduction of production costs makes an operation profitable. To accomplish the reduction costs, a number of strategies, are utilized. These strategies include: maximizing food conversion and reducing water, power, processing, and storage costs.

· Food is critical to aquaculture because it usually constitutes over 50% of production costs, and also because it provides the energy inputs necessary to achieve maximal growth. In aquaculture, feeds range from live to formulated diets and are often changed as species develop and mature.

· For example, as a larval fish hatches from an egg, the immediate source of energy is derived from maternal stores in the attached yolk sac. This energy source is rapidly exhausted, and the developing fish must transition to exogenous foods. Further, the capacity to store food in the gastrointestinal tract at this stage is limited. As a result, the greatest mortality generally occurs during this critical stage. For the aquaculturist, this means that there needs to be continuously available sources of food to prevent starvation and promote rapid growth.

· Food must be readily accepted and easily digestible. As a result, live or high protein diets are often initially utilized, although fish are transitioned to a cost-effective formulated diet as soon as possible due to ease of feeding, and better nutrient consistency, availability, and storage.

· Formulated diets are made of natural products, such as fish meal, soybean meal, and corn meal, and will also include a complement of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals.

· Due to cost and the need to reduce the environmental footprint of aquaculture, the amount of fish meal is reduced as much as possible as the fish grow, and replaced with alternative protein sources, such as soybean meal.

· Every species has specific nutritional requirements, and the diet that is administered needs to meet minimum levels of these requirements (i.e., protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals) and have high digestibility to ensure maximum growth rates.

WATER

· After food, water is obviously at the heart of aquaculture, and questions such as the quality and quantity of the source that will be used are integral to the success of an operation.

· Key parameters necessary to the survival of most species are

ü dissolved oxygen,

ü temperature,

ü salinity,

ü hardness,

ü ammonia,

ü nitrite and

ü pH.

· The goals of most operations are to maintain these water quality variables within ranges that will ensure maximal growth, while reducing water use, and minimizing effluent. The diet type often plays directly into water quality, because uneaten food, and food that is not highly digestible, result in nutrient inputs into the water.

· These nutrient inputs can fertilize the water surrounding the fish and the resulting effluent from the operation. Microbes, phytoplankton and plants can be stimulated by the nutrient inputs, and may result in poor water quality, with the amount of nutrients in effluent directly related to water retention time and hydraulic turnover rate (Tucker et al. 2005).

· Therefore, water quality is directly related to the intensity and type of aquaculture system being utilized.

Different types of aquaculture systems. (References)

In general, aquaculture can be divided into extensive or intensive production.

· Extensive aquaculture provides little control over the environment of the cultured organism, with cultured organisms subjected to limitations of natural food sources and environmental conditions. Examples of extensive aquaculture are oyster farming by spreading oyster shells along a region of shoreline.

· Iintensive aquaculture is highly controlled, with many conditions such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, and diet maintained within specific desired levels. An example of intensive aquaculture would be a recirculating system or raceway system for tilapia fed a complete diet.

· Within the parameters of extensive and intensive, there are a number of different systems utilized for aquaculture. Some of the main categories of systems are earthen ponds, raceways, cages, net pens, and recirculating systems..

One example of a common type of aquaculture system utilized around the world, are earthen ponds. Ponds are relatively

o simple to construct, and

o have the benefit of low nutrient input into effluent due to long water retention times and nutrient absorption by sediment.

However, these systems are subject to erosion and upkeep.

In contrast, cages and net pens, which can be placed into existing water bodies, may have much higher nutrient inputs to their immediate surroundings, which can be offset by choosing a location with sufficient current to minimize compounding effects in one area. Maintaining cage or pen integrity can be difficult and expensive.

Ø An old system which is receiving new attention is aquaponics. Aquaponics combines a recirculating system with a hydroponic system, in which effluent is utilized to grow plants. The plants utilize the nutrient rich water, and by removing nutrients, improve the water quality for the fish. Both the fish and the plants can then be sold profitably. This technology is still developing, although progress has been rapid.

Ø A similar type of system for earthen ponds is known as a partitioned aquaculture system. These systems divide a pond into two portions, with a partition in between. Paddlewheels keep water circulating from the fish side to the non-fish side. Phytoplankton in the non-fish side utilize the nitrogenous wastes and phosphorus while producing lots of oxygen that can be utilized by the fish. The result is that much higher densities and total numbers of fish can be produced than if fish were stocked into the total area of both pond portions. Current research is focused on understanding the processes involved and the appropriate stocking densities.

Case Study

As an example of aquaculture, the US catfish industry is the largest producer of any species group in the USA. Earthen ponds roughly a meter deep, which are fed by well-water or surface water provide the culture environment, and refinement and improvement of production processes are continuously being implemented. One example is through the culture of hybrid catfish. Hybrid catfish are produced by crossing a female channel catfish with a male blue catfish. The offspring benefit from the fast growth rate of channel catfish and the greater disease resistance of the blue catfish. Currently, the US catfish industry has been challenged by a number of issues, including plateaued product prices, increased production costs, international competition and economic recession. US market prices for catfish have remained relatively stable for the last twenty years (USDA 2010), while production costs, such as fuel, have steadily increased. Corn, soybean and grain costs, which are primary ingredients in catfish feeds, have also seen recent increases in costs, also resulting in reduced profitability. International competition has come in the form of tilapia (family Cichlidae) and catfishes mainly from the family Pangasiidae. Other examples of aquaculture, that demonstrate some of the variety of species under culture, include the culture of giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii;), the culture of red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii;), and recently, the culture of algae for biofuels.

Globally and in the USA, the per capita demand for seafood is increasing. In the USA, demand for seafood has exceeded domestic supply, resulting in a 9.6 billion dollar trade deficit (FAO 2010). While the current state of the economy has restricted the growth of aquaculture, the long-term outlook is quite good. Similarly, the worldwide outlook for aquaculture is very favorable. Increasing human populations combined with limited natural resources in freshwater and the world’s oceans, which are currently near maximum harvest yields (Hilborn et al. 2003), mean that the demand for seafood must be met by aquaculture. In recent years, global aquaculture production has increased to the point where it exceeds 50% of commercial capture fishery production (FAO 2010).

Notes: Sustainable Aquaculture: The Roadblocks and Solutions for a Better Future

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sustainable-aquaculture-roadblocks-solutions-better-future

Aquaculture, the farming of organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed, has become an increasingly important source of food for a growing global population. However, with the increasing demand for seafood, there are growing concerns about the sustainability of aquaculture practices.

Sustainable aquaculture is defined production of seafood needs of the present without future generations to meet their own needs. To achieve sustainability, aquaculture practices must be environmentally and socially responsible, economically viable, and ecologically sound.

Unfortunately, there are several roadblocks to achieving sustainable aquaculture. In this article, we will examine some of these roadblocks and explore potential solutions for a more sustainable future.

Environmental Challenges

The primary environmental challenge facing aquaculture is pollution. Fish farms generate large amounts of waste, which can contribute to nutrient pollution and harm water quality. This pollution can lead to the growth of harmful algal blooms, which can cause fish kills, shellfish closures, and other ecological problems.

To address this challenge, many aquaculture producers are adopting innovative strategies such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), which recycle water and remove waste products. Other producers are using alternative feeds that reduce waste production and minimize the use of wild-caught fish as feed.

Socioeconomic Challenges

Access to resources is a major socioeconomic challenge facing aquaculture producers. Many farmers in developing countries lack access to the resources necessary for success, including land, water, and capital. This can make it difficult for them to adopt sustainable aquaculture practices.

To overcome this challenge, governments and international organizations are providing assistance to help small-scale farmers access the resources they need to succeed. This includes providing loans and technical assistance, as well as supporting the development of infrastructure such as hatcheries and processing facilities.

Political Challenges

The political landscape can also present challenges to sustainable aquaculture. Conflicting interests among stakeholders, inadequate policies, and a lack of governance can all hinder progress towards sustainability.

To address these challenges, governments and organizations are working to develop policies and regulations that promote sustainable aquaculture practices. This includes supporting research and innovation, as well as providing incentives for producers to adopt sustainable practices.

Technological Challenges

Technological challenges are also a barrier to sustainable aquaculture. The cost of equipment and infrastructure can be prohibitively high, especially for small-scale producers. In addition, inadequate research and development can limit the availability of new technologies that could improve production efficiency and reduce environmental impacts.

To overcome these challenges, governments and organizations are investing in research and development to create new technologies that are more affordable and accessible for small-scale producers. They are also providing technical assistance and training to help farmers adopt new technologies and improve their production practices.

Climate Change Challenges

Climate change is perhaps the most significant challenge facing aquaculture producers. Rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events can all have negative impacts on fish health and productivity.

To address this challenge, producers are adopting practices that improve the resilience of their operations to climate change. This includes measures such as site selection, water management, and the use of stress-tolerant species.

Conclusion

Sustainable aquaculture is critical for the future of our planet and the health of our oceans. While there are many challenges to achieving sustainability, there are also many solutions. By working together to develop innovative strategies and practices, we can create a more sustainable future for aquaculture and the world.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity: Use the above notes to answer the tasks specified below.

See Specific Learning Outcomes of Sub Strand 1.2: Marine Resource Challenges

Ataein F5C Marine i matan aobitin te Fisheries & Marine i aon Kiritimati i muin maroroia ma kaain te aobiti aio i aon te Aquafarming i aon Kiribati

Sub Strand 1.2: Marine Resource CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS Week 4

SLO 1 Challenges facing aquaculture (farming targeted species):

A. Environmental challenges – Fish farms generate large amounts of waste which can contribute to nutrient pollution and harm water quality. This can cause fish kills, shellfish closures, and other ecological problems

B. Socioeconomic challenges – lacking resources such as land, water and capital

C. Political challenges – conflict of interest amongst stakeholders, inadequate policies, lack of governance

D. Technological challenges – high cost of equipment and infrastructure, inadequate research and development, lack of new technologies

E. Climate change challenges – rising sea levels, ocean acidification, extreme weather conditions

SLO 2 How these challenges can be addressed

A. Environmental challenges solution:

· adopt innovative strategies, such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS),

· use alternative feeds that reduce waste production

· maintain the use of wild caught fish as feed

B. Socioeconomic challenges solution:

· Governments and organization should provide assistance such as :

ü Loans

ü Technical assistance

ü Supporting the development of infrastructure such as hatcheries and processing facilities

C. Political challenges solutions:

· Government and organizations should develop policies and regulations that promote sustainable aquaculture practices

· Supporting research and innovations and incentives for producers to adopt sustainable practices

D. Technological challenges solutions:

· Governments and organizations should invest in research and develop new technologies for sustainable fishing

· Provide technical assistance and training for farmers to adopt the new technologies

E. Climate Change challenges solutions:

· Adopt practices that are resilient to climate change

· Select new sites favorable to the type of farming

· Manage water suitable for the species

· Use stress tolerant species

SLO 3 Define unsustainable fishing methods in terms of overfishing

Some unsustainable fishing methods used around the world are:

· Bottom trawling - a fishing method that uses towed nets to catch fish and other marine species living on or close to the seabed.

· Cyanide fishing. – a cyanide solution is used to stun fish for easier collection.

· Dynamite fishing. - when dynamite or other explosives are used to stun or kill fish

· Ghost fishing. - a term that describes what happens when derelict fishing gear 'continues to fish'

· By-catch. - a fish or other marine species that is caught unintentionally while fishing for specific species or sizes of wildlife

SLO 4 Five types of overfishing practices

· trawling, - Trawl nets are designed to be towed by a boat through the water column (midwater trawl) or along the sea floor (bottom trawl).
· seining, - to fish with or catch fish with a seine.
· gillnetting - a fishing method that uses gillnets: vertical panels of netting that hang from a line with regularly spaced floaters that hold the line on the surface of the water.
pots and traps - are used to catch crabs, lobsters, whelk, scup, black sea bass, and eels by dropping traps and pots to the bottom with bait.
FADS - they have been associated with several negative ecosystem impacts, such as bycatch and overfishing.

SLO 5 Impacts of overfishing practices on marine resources

When too many fish are taken out of the ocean it creates an imbalance that can erode the food web and lead to a loss of other important marine life, including vulnerable species like sea turtles and corals.
endangers ocean ecosystems and the billions of people who rely on seafood as a key source of protein.

SLO 6 Causes of overfishing practices in Kiribati

In our oceans huge commercial fishing operators from Europe, Asia and America are removing fish far faster than oceans can replenish them.
· A round the coast of our main islands fish is quickly diminishing due to the over density population of the small atolls who fish daily for the protein needs.

SLO 7 Some factors of climate change that alter the natural marine habitat.

As ocean water temperatures warm, the distribution of many marine species—including those we rely on for food—is shifting due to their dependence on specific water temperatures and nutrient availability.
Both warm and cold-loving marine species are migrating to different places and changing their breeding and feeding patterns due to warming waters.
Many marine creatures time their reproductive and migratory cycles around prey. When these patterns are disrupted due to a changing climate, they can also change predator-prey relationships and increase mass strandings, starvation, and poor reproductive success.
Rising sea levels are reducing nesting habitats and contaminating freshwater habitats with saltwater.
Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are making the oceans more acidic and decreasing the ability of shells and other calcium carbonate structures, such as coral skeletons, to form.

SLO 8 How does the factors of climate change destruct the marine ecosystem

Rising temperatures increase the risk of irreversible loss of marine and coastal ecosystems.
Today, widespread changes have been observed, including
- - damage to coral reefs and mangroves that support ocean life, and
  - migration of species to higher latitudes and altitudes where the water could be cooler.

SLO 9 Other natural disasters than climate change that have negative effects on the marine ecosystem

Natural disasters involving ocean processes include phenomena such as rain, tropical storms, tsunamis, storm surges, blooms of toxic algae, pathogen and contamination of coastal waters.
Natural disasters such as hurricanes, tropical storms, tsunamis, and landslides have the potential to generate a tremendous amount of marine debris that can harm marine ecosystem.

SLO 10 Justify the challenges that affect the physical growth of marine species like milkfish, giant clam, seaweed, and sea cucumber.

A. Environmental challenges – Fish farms generate large amounts of waste which can contribute to nutrient pollution and harm water quality. This can cause

fish kills (eg., milkfish, sea cucumber)
shellfish closures (eg., giant clam, pearl clam), and other ecological problems

B. Socioeconomic challenges – lacking proper water quality and insufficient capital to improve water quality

C. Political challenges – policies that forbid subsistence aquafarming

D. Technological challenges – inadequate research and development, and lack of new technologies to improve growth of species

E. Climate change challenges – rising sea levels, ocean acidification, extreme weather conditions can destroy ecosystems and affect growth of species.

Student Activity:

SLO 11 Investigate challenges that impede the enhancement of the aquaculture industry in the Region

In the region of the Kiribati islands
In the Pacific Ocean

By week 5 ao ti a tia ni cover Sub-strand 1.1, 1.2, ao 1.3 are tia kanakoi ba kanoan ara Mid-Term Assessment nte moan Term aio.

Sub-strand 1.3: Fishing Methods and Safety Week 5

SLO 1: What is Fishing?

Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish.

· Fish are often caught as wildlife from the natural environment (fresh water or marine), but may also be caught from stocked bodies of water such as ponds, canals, park wetlands and reservoirs.

· Fishing techniques include hand-gathering, spearing, netting, angling, shooting and trapping, as well as more destructive and often illegal techniques such as electrocution, blasting and poisoning.

· Includes catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as crustaceans (shrimp/lobsters/crabs), shellfish, cephalopods (octopus/squid) and echinoderms (starfish/sea urchins).

Fishing has been an important part of human culture since hunter-gatherer times, and is one of the few food production activities that have persisted from prehistory into the modern age.

In addition to being caught to be eaten for food, fish are caught as recreational pastimes. Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept long-term as preserved or living trophies. When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released.

According to the United Nations FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishers and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fishing industries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries. In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms (32 lb), with an additional 7.4 kilograms (16 lb) harvested from fish farms.

Fishing Methods

Most Common Methods

A fishery is partially defined by the way that it is caught. Gear selection plays a major role in determining the cost, efficiency, and bycatch of a fishery. In this post, we explain all the various methods to get fish out of the water and onto your plate.

Fishing with Nets

When you think of commercial fishing you probably think of big, giant nets swooping up a school of fish. You’re not wrong! Over 80% of fish are caught via nets. There are several different kinds, though:

Purse Seine

In purse seine fishing, the most common way fish are caught, a boat locates a school of fish, then, using either a crane or small boat, takes one end of a net around the school and back to the fishing vessel. The ends of the net are synched together like a drawstring bag and pulled aboard with the fish inside.

Because purse seining targets a particular school of fish after it has been located, bycatch is extremely low. Sometimes fishing boats will deploy floating objects like big rafts or floating barrels to attract fish (fish love structure); these fish aggregating devices (FADs) make seining much easier by reducing fuel use and time spent looking for schools of fish, however FADs also attract other marine life and bycatch is higher. Over half of all tuna is caught using purse seines; when using FADs bycatch ranges between 1-8%, whereas without FADs bycatch is less than 1%.

Angling

Refers to using a hook attached to a line to catch fish. Angling is almost always done with some type of bait and sinker on the hook

Trawling

Trawling is dragging a net through the water behind a boat. There are two different kinds: bottom trawls and midwater trawls.

Bottom trawl

Bottom trawls involve weighing a net down to the seafloor then dragging it across the bottom to scoop up fish.

Bycatch is not overly concerning with bottom trawls, but habitat damage is. Sandy bottoms and rocky environments regenerate fairly quickly after a bottom trawl net comes through, but bottom trawls can significantly impact sensitive habitat like deepwater coral or sponge gardens. Good fishery management ensures that bottom trawling is done in sustainable areas and not in places with irreplaceable habitat.

Gillnet

Gillnets are set up to be a wall with holes in it. Fish unknowingly swim into it and get stuck. Gillnets don’t require a boat with a big engine so they are often used in less developed areas of the world.

Gillnets have the most bycatch of any kind of fishing net, but their use has been declining. Gillnets can be sustainable in some cases, for example salmon congregate at choke points that can be walled off without affecting other species. Gill nets that are not set at a particular location and drift with the current are called drift nets. These also have serious issues with bycatch.

Fishing with line

Longlines

Longlines are very long fishing lines that have a hook every few feet. They can be many miles long.

Bycatch in longline fisheries is highly variable depending on the fishery. Halibut longlines in Alaska have very little bycatch while longlines meant to harvest tuna catch about 20% bycatch. Issues in longlining are more common in fisheries close to the surface where seabirds, sharks, and turtles get caught eating baited hooks. Regulations are better in higher capacity countries where fishery managers can require specialized hooks and weights that reduce bycatch.

Pole and line

A fishing pole and line catches fish individually. There is no concern over bycatch.

Harvesting Shellfish

Dredge

Dredging is similar to bottom trawling, but instead of a net, a metal rake of sorts is dragged across the bottom to collect shellfish and bivalves buried in the substrate, e.g. scallops, clams, or mussels.

Bycatch is low but the same considerations apply for bottom trawling: good fishery management ensures that dredging is done in sustainable sandy areas and not in places with irreplaceable habitat

Traps and Pots

Traps and pots are mainly used to catch invertebrates like crab and lobster. Traps or pots are dropped to the bottom with bait to attract crab and lobster. Once they crawl inside, they can’t escape and are pulled back to the surface when the fishers return.

Bycatch is not a problem, but sometimes gear gets swept away or fishers forget where they set their traps. This has led to some whale entanglements, particularly on the West Coast of the U.S. Some states have started offering reward to people who collect escaped traps and pots.

Diving

Some commercial fisheries, like sea urchin, geoduck, and sea cucumber are harvested by divers.

Trolling

Is a technique that involves towing lures or baits behind a boat at a certain depth in order to get the fish to bite. Traditional methods use lines can be held by hand, while a using a line with a pole is a more modern method.

Sub-strand 1.4: MARINE RESOURCES CONSERVATION

SLO. 1: Marine zoning is designed to protect and preserve sensitive parts of the ecosystem while allowing activities that are compatible with resource protection. The marine zoning plan for the Sanctuary includes five types of zones with varying levels of protection.

Marine zoning is a process of identifying locations for specific objectives or activities such as for biodiversity conservation or economic uses, and delineating the areas with the use of coordinates .

SLO.2. The Importance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

A marine protected area (MPA) is a section of the ocean where a government has placed limits on human activity. Many MPAs allow people to use the area in ways that do not damage the environment.

MPAs have been established because the ocean and the things that live in it face many dangers. Threats to the ocean include overfishing, litter, water pollution, and global climate change. These threats have caused a decline in the population of many fish, marine mammals, and other sea creatures.

Marine protected areas can have many different names, including marine parks, marine conservation zones, marine reserves, marine sanctuaries, and no-take zones. More than 5,000 MPAs have been established around the world. Together, they cover 0.8 percent of the ocean.

Marine protected areas can be established in a variety of aquatic habitats. Some MPAs are in the open ocean. Many MPAs protect coastlines. Others cover estuaries, places where rivers enter the sea. In estuaries, freshwater and saltwater mix.

Goals of MPAs

Different MPAs have different goals. The main focus of many MPAs is to protect marine habitats and the variety of life that they support. For example, the Galápagos Marine Reserve, which lies about 1,000 kilometers (600 miles) off the west coast of South America, protects a series of small islands and the surrounding waters. This reserve includes a tremendous variety of habitats, from coral reefs to cold ocean currents to mangrove swamps, where trees grow directly in salty seawater. The waters around the Galápagos are home to 3,000 different plant and animal species, including unusual species such as the marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), the world’s only seagoing lizard.

Another example: Phoenix Islands Protected Area

The Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA) is a 408,250 sq.km expanse of marine and terrestrial habitats in the Southern Pacific Ocean. The property encompasses the Phoenix Island Group, one of three island groups in Kiribati, and is the largest designated Marine Protected Area in the world. PIPA conserves one of the world's largest intact oceanic coral archipelago ecosystems, together with 14 known underwater sea mounts (presumed to be extinct volcanoes) and other deep-sea habitats. The area contains approximately 800 known species of fauna, including about 200 coral species, 500 fish species, 18 marine mammals and 44 bird species. The structure and functioning of PIPA's ecosystems illustrates its pristine nature and importance as a migration route and reservoir. This is the first site in Kiribati to be inscribed on the World Heritage List.

SLO.3. Process of designating marine zoning

Who sets marine protected areas?

The national system of MPAs is the group of MPA sites, networks and systems established and managed by federal, state, tribal and/or local governments that collectively enhance conservation of the nation's natural and cultural marine heritage and represent its diverse ecosystems and resources.

What are the reasons for creating marine protected areas?

MPAs allow ecosystems and the creatures and plants living in them to recover. They provide safe spaces in which fish can breed undisturbed, and can protect spawning and nursery areas that let young fish mature into adulthood, without the pressure of fishing.

What are the problems with marine protected areas?

Critics counter that marine protected areas restrict local communities' access to their ancestral fishing grounds, make them poorer and often increase conflict between them and people involved in park management or tourism.

How can we protect marine protected areas?

What You Can Do:

· Support Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) ...

· Eat Sustainable Seafood. ...

· Use Less Plastic. ...

· Respect Ocean Wildlife and Habitats. ...

· Reduce Your Energy Use. ...

· Dispose of Household & Hazardous Materials Properly. ...

· Use Less Fertilizer. ...

· Learn All That You Can.

Marine Life Zones

Factors that divide the ocean into marine life zones are:

· Sunlight

· Distance from shore

· Water depth

SLO.4. Key species in the different marine zones

What is a key species in the marine ecosystem?

In a marine ecosystem, or any type of ecosystem, a keystone species is an organism that helps hold the system together. Without its keystone species, ecosystems would look very different. Some ecosystems might not be able to adapt to environmental changes if their keystone species disappeared.

SLO.5. Examples of some key species in the marine ecosystem, and their functional roles

Sea stars - This is the species that started the “keystone” studies back in the 1960’s. When removed the ecosystem collapsed by changing the species numbers and the mix of that environment

Sea otters - The kelp forest “rangers” that consume urchins, which consume kelp and without the otters, no kelp forest. They are the urchins “birth control” measure.

Parrotfish - The reefs’ “repairperson” that consumes dead coral and produces sand as a by-product. If that is not important enough they also consume and control algae which will take over and kill coral reefs if allowed.

Krill - The foodstuff of so many species. Big things from such a small species.

White sharks - The oceans’ cleanup crew members. They cull the injured, weakened, and dying to keep the environment healthy.

What is the role of a keystone species in an ecosystem?

Through a chain of interactions, a non-abundant species has an out-sized impact on ecosystem functions.

As was described by Dr. Robert Paine in his classic 1966 paper, some sea stars may prey on sea urchins, mussels, and other shellfish that have no other natural predators. If the sea star is removed from the ecosystem, the mussel population explodes uncontrollably, driving out most other species, while the urchin population annihilates coral reefs.

Similarly, sea otters protect kelp forests from damage by sea urchins. Kelp “roots’', called holdfasts, are merely anchors, and not the vast nutrient gathering networks of land plants. Thus, the sea urchins only need to eat the roots of the kelp, a tiny fraction of the plant's biomass, to remove it from the ecosystem. These creatures need not be apex predators. Sea stars are prey for sharks, rays, and sea anemones. Sea otters are prey for Orca

SLO.6. How key species adapted to their functioning role

By keeping the populations and range of their prey in check, keystone predators, like sea otters, impact other predators as well as other animal and plant species farther down the food chain.

Types of keystone species

Scientists have identified three types of keystone species: predators, ecosystem engineers, and mutualists.

Predators: The best-known examples of predation involve carnivorous interactions, in which one animal consumes another. Predators help control the populations of other species, which impacts other animals further along the food chain. White sharks are a great example of this type of keystone species. They tend to prey on sick, wounded or old animals (sharks, whales, etc) which strengthens the herd in the long run. They also stop the herd from overfeeding. If shark populations are left unchecked, they could excessively eat other lower species that other higher species (in the food chain) also rely on to survive. When top predators are lost, it can trigger what’s called a trophic cascade that affects the whole ecological hierarchy.

Predation Examples in the Fish World

Tuna consuming large amounts of fish from schools.
Piranhas in a feeding frenzy to eat a larger fish or animal.
Lionfish attacking large numbers of reef fish.
Sharks stalking and killing other fish, birds, or marine mammals.

Ecosystem engineers are creatures that build, destroy or alter habitats. Ecosystem engineers are species that create, destroy, modify, or maintain habitats in significant ways. These uniquely productive animals create conditions for other species to benefit from, such as adequate shelter or food sources. While the activities of some ecosystem engineers at times appear to damage the environment, their activities are often crucial to the survival of other species.

Corals, are quintessential ecosystem engineers. They create a physical structure that affects ocean currents, making opportunities for a great diversity of plants and animal species to thrive. Fish are afforded shelter from both predators and, in some cases, rapid water movement. Consequently, coral reefs and forests often provide nurseries as well as feeding and spawning grounds for many fish.

ü Kelp forests, which flourish in rocky, cold-water coastal areas, function as underwater forests. Their physical structure, a rich canopy, provides shelter and food for fish and other marine organisms.

By creating homes for themselves, red groupers inadvertently do the same for other species. Using their mouth and fins, these fish sweep sand and sediment from holes on and near the seafloor. The cleared surfaces then become habitats for sessile (immobile) creatures like sponges, coral, anemones, and other marine creatures to settle. As they grow, red groupers establish a complex physical structure that supports the survival of many other species. In this way, these and other grouper species are associated with greater biodiversity.

Mutualists are two or more species in an ecosystem that interact for each other’s benefit. These are just a few of the many mutualistic relationships in our ocean. Others include gobies and mantis shrimp; manta rays and remoras; hermit crabs and sea anemones; groupers with octopuses and moray eels; and the famous sea anemone and clownfish.

These are just a few of the many mutualistic relationships in our ocean. Others include:

gobies and mantis shrimp
manta rays and remoras
hermit crabs and sea anemones
groupers with octopuses and moray eels
sea anemone and clownfish.

How marine lives are an example of mutualism?

Cleaner fish and larger fish share a mutualistic relationship. This is because the cleaner fish eats harmful parasites and other small sources of food off of the large fish.
Coral polyps, which are animals, and zooxanthellae, specialized cells that live within them, have a mutualistic relationship. Coral polyps produce carbon dioxide and water as byproducts of cellular respiration. The zooxanthellae cells use carbon dioxide and water to carry out photosynthesis

SLO.7: Top Predators and their roles

In the aquatic ecosystems the top predators are: sharks, orcas, killer whales, sea lions, seals, dolphins, swordfish, tuna

Top predators help to keep populations of their prey in check. This prevents prey populations from growing too large and depleting their food sources. Top predators also help to control the spread of disease by culling sick or injured animals. Additionally, top predators help to maintain the diversity of the ecosystem by preventing any one species from becoming too dominant.

When top predators are removed from an ecosystem, the balance of the food chain can be disrupted. This can lead to a number of problems, including:

· Overpopulation of prey: Without predators to keep them in check, prey populations can grow too large and deplete their food sources. This can lead to starvation and death for the prey animals.

· Increased competition for food: When prey populations grow too large, there is more competition for food. This can lead to conflict between different species of animals.

· Changes in plant communities: When prey animals overgraze, it can lead to changes in plant communities. This can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem.

· Spread of disease: When top predators are absent, sick or injured animals are more likely to survive and spread disease. This can harm other animals in the ecosystem.

It is, therefore, important to conserve top predators to maintain the balance of the ecosystem. By protecting top predators, we can help to ensure the health and well-being of all the animals that share our planet.

SLO.8: Commercial Fishing Zones

What is the meaning of commercial fishing?

Commercial fishing is the taking of fish and other seafood and resources from oceans, rivers, and lakes for the purpose of marketing them. The ‘zones’ are the areas they are allowed to conduct their fishing in.

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) are areas of the sea, generally extending 200 nautical miles from a country's coastline, that are reserved to the respective country under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

What is the zone in which most commercial fishing takes place?

The Neritic Zone

The neritic zone is the region of water that lies above the continental shelf, the relatively shallow part of the seafloor that adjoins the continents. When people go deep-sea fishing, they are actually in the neritic zone. In fact, most of the world's commercial fishing takes place in the neritic zone.

Managing commercial fishing include:

· Limits on the number of fishing licences

· Spatial and seasonal closures

· Restrictions on fishing vessel size

· Restrictions on the length, mesh size and number of nets used

· Limits on the number of hooks used

· Limits on the number of traps such as crab pots and dillies used

· Limits on fishing effort or total allowable catch

· Size limits and restrictions on the species that may be retained.

SLO 10: MPA, CBFM, MSP

MPA

A marine protected area (MPA) is a section of the ocean where a government has placed limits on human activity. Many MPAs allow people to use the area in ways that do not damage the environment.

CBFM

In 2013, the Government of Kiribati made Community Based Fisheries Management (CBFM) a short-term priority strategic action in its National Fisheries Policy. In 2014, a three-year pilot project on CBFM focusing on two islands, North Tarawa and Butaritari, as a partnership between the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resource Development of Kiribati (MFMRD).

MSP

Marine spatial planning (known as MSP, but also called Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning, Maritime Spatial Planning, Marine Planning or Ocean Planning) is the process of analyzing and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives.

MARINE MANAGEMENT APPROACH

MPA

CBFM

MSP

· Biodiversity Conservation: They protect marine ecosystems, habitats, and species.

· Pro-poor and equitable: Ensures access to fisheries resources for those whose livelihoods depend on them, supporting poverty alleviation

· Sustainable management: Balances economic, social, and environmental objectives.

· Fisheries Management: MPAs can help replenish fish stocks and support sustainable fishing.

· Sustainable management: Empowers local communities to manage aquatic resources effectively

· Conflict prevention: Reduces potential conflicts between different marine activities.

· Tourism: They can boost local economies through eco-tourism

· Balances needs: Facilitates trade-offs between different stakeholder priorities, balancing social and ecological needs

· Ecosystem protection: Helps protect marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

· Research Opportunities: MPAs provide living laboratories for scientific research and education.

· Economic benefits: Can lead to more efficient and predictable use of marine space, benefiting various industries.

MPAs can help mitigate against climate change

Empower coastal fishing communities to control their marine resources and improve resilience, food security and livelihoods The Pacific islands are home to thousands of coastal communities, many of which depend on their marine resources for livelihoods, cultural significance, and well-being.

MSP is not an end in itself but a practical way to create and establish a more rational use of marine space and the interactions among its uses, to balance demands for development with the need to protect the environment, and to deliver social and economic outcomes in an open and planned way

Sampling in fisheries is crucial for several reasons:

· Estimating catches: It helps in estimating the total weight of fish harvested and the total effort, including bycatch and discards, which are important for evaluating ecosystem health.

· Quantifiable uncertainty: Probability sampling allows for inferences about population parameters with measurable uncertainty levels.

· Adaptive approach: Sampling enables researchers to adjust their methods to ensure they collect necessary data efficiently.

Sampling designs in fisheries are methods used to collect data on fish populations and fisheries activities. These designs aim to yield high-quality estimates of fish species abundances and compositions while minimizing impacts on fish populations.

Seasonal closures in fisheries are important for several reasons:

· They help reduce fishing pressure on fish stocks during critical reproductive periods, allowing fish to lay eggs and replenish populations.

· By limiting fishing efforts, seasonal closures aim to increase stock size and ensure sustainable fish populations.

· They can also provide areas for research and management experiments to improve decision-making in fisheries management.

The seasonal closure management strategy is primarily based on effort control. Its purpose is to reduce catching power and fishing mortality by limiting the amount of fishing to a desired level, which would then supposedly increase stock size.

Size limits in fisheries are crucial because they:

· Allow fish to reach maturity.

· Enable fish to complete their breeding cycle.

· Contribute to sustainable fish stocks by preventing overfishing of immature fish.

The reason for the application of minimum size limits is to allow individual species to grow to a size at which they can spawn at least once before capture. Banning the catching of selected species is aimed at protecting those that are under threat or endangered, usually from excessive fishing.

Fishing quotas are essential for:

· Sustainability: They ensure long-term viability of fish stocks by limiting catches.

· Preventing overfishing: Quotas help maintain ecological balance and prevent fish population depletion.

· Regulation: Authorities use quotas to control the amount of fish harvested, promoting conservation.

Fishing quota, also called Individual Transferrable Quota (ITQ), provides a share of the fish catch or fishing effort allowed in a fishery to an individual fisher. Fishing quota is usually specific to a fish species as part of a fish stock (a distinct population of a species).