Social Contract Theory

Introduction

The political philosophy of the Social Contract Theory dates back to the origins of both politics and philosophy (Friend). The Social Contract Theory has been the core of all human government and organization. Formally recognized during the Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th century, the theory is predicated on the idea that in order to form society, a sense of agreement is needed, referred to as a metaphorical contract. This agreement to give up certain individual freedoms must be made both between and among the leader and the people to ensure protection, order, and preservation of rights (Friend). These moral, political, and social agreements can be anywhere from raising your hand in class to create a fair learning environment to refraining from committing crime to avoid disrupting safety and order.

State of Nature

The concept of society has not always existed. Humanity’s existence in this pre-societal context is described by political theory as the “State of Nature.” This concept of humans living without government, laws, or society, is used by philosophers and theorists to discuss the origin of government and why people would choose to form them (Munro, 2015). However, because of the state of nature’s abstract character, exact definitions have varied drastically. Theorists who have shaped both the state of nature and social contract theory as a whole include English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke in addition to the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Munro, 2015).

Thomas Hobbes

The state of nature, as described by Hobbes, was a chaotic and dangerous way of life; a lack of rights for a salience of mistrust and self-preservation. In his words, it was “war of every man against every man,” a topic he expounds in his 1651 book “Leviathan”(Munro, 2015).

John Locke

In contrast, Locke’s state of nature description is much more peaceful. While disputes and insecurity are inevitable, he still believed that natural/individual rights, which he outlines as “life, liberty, or possessions,” would be innate, allowing for some sense of equality and independence.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau follows a similar ideology, asserting that a nature that precedes society can only be void of negative social properties such as the ones described by Hobbes (dominance, pride, envy, etc.). He believed that people were naturally neutral in their morals and acted by their basic needs, leading to a solitary yet relatively peaceful state of living.

Despite all of this contrast, the state of nature is always described as a free, uncertain, state without order and the only way out would be the formation of government (Munro, 2015).

Why Government is Created (Leaving State of Nature)

When state, or political organization of society, is established, the state of nature is abandoned (Britannica Editors, 2022). What caused people to make this change? As previously explained, the state of nature is undesirable, and even in its peaceful description, unsatisfactory (Duignan, 2025). Additionally, humans are innately social beings. Social interaction, and therefore some formation of society, is inevitable. Technically, in a free-nature state, everyone has the right to everything and the freedom to take anything (Duignan, 2025). In a society, these communal freedoms lead to chaos and, as a result, some form of authority is needed to maintain order.

The idea is that each member of society submits their unlimited freedom along with some (or all) rights to this leader who holds power over them. An example of one of these “rights” is the freedom to steal. In a society without rules, you have free will to take someone else’s possessions. Unfortunately, this also means someone else can take yours and this is not conventional. It is important to note that the authority figure is often the decider of what is "conventional" or “nonconventional,” meaning that, in some sense, citizens also give up their own morals to take on those of their government (Duignan, 2025). When everyone agrees to surrender their freedom to steal to the authority (in this case, let’s use the law), we receive in exchange a right to our possessions. This is an example of social contract theory, the core of structured society (Duignan, 2025). Overall, the government is created by citizens exchanging their freedoms to an authoritative body for safety and protection of rights in order to benefit their society and maintain order (Britannica Editors, 2022).

Application to the Real World

Regardless of its complete accuracy, many of the Social Contract Theory’s central values are relevant in today's world and it is especially prominent in western politics. Its principles have inspired constitutions, political documents, and government systems globally. Key inspirations from the works of this theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) include modern constitutionalism (Herbert, 2007) and modern liberalism (Munro, 2015). For example, Locke’s idea that everyone is innately entitled to individual rights has been greatly implemented. Specifically, his conceptualization of those rights as life, liberty, and possessions (property) has famously been aligned with the U.S. Constitution (Munro, 2015). The concept of natural rights is also ingrained in the Revolutionary era catalyzed by the American Revolution and influential political proclamations such as the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, the American Declaration of Independence, and Bill of Rights (Herbert, 2007). Other prominent factors of government that align with the Social Contract Theory include encouraging civic participation in the government and everyday responsibilities such as obeying laws, paying taxes, and serving on juries in exchange for government services such as law enforcement, education, and infrastructure. While modern governments may not perfectly fulfill every promise of the social contract, many of their core institutions remain rooted in its principles.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The Bill of Rights

Criticisms to The Theory

Despite Social Contract Theory’s prominent influence, there have been notable criticisms from a variety of perspectives. Many significant ones come from a feminist perspective (Friend). One of these arguments, often referred to as the maternal argument, points out possible inaccuracy of the foundational morals outlined by the theory. The nature of society in Social Contract Theory relies on the idea that a human’s instinctive morals are derived from self-preservation. However, this fails to recognize a major part of the population’s moral obligation, specifically mothers and their children (Friend). A mother-child relationship greatly contrasts with self-interest, instead including much self-sacrifice. It is in a human’s,especially a woman’s, psychology to prioritize their child’s needs and provide even without anything in return (Friend). If such a significant portion of the population acts, not solely on their own interest, but on the interests of others, the theory’s large generalization leaves much room for doubt. The larger argument here is that the definition of person in the state of nature and social contract theory as a whole (the average human's moral beliefs, political obligations, priorities, etc.) is rather ignorant. Named by Hobbes as the Liberal Individual, the figure is supposed to represent the universal person, a model of society free from social labels or identities (Friend).

However, looking deeper into the characteristics of the Liberal Individual by the foundational Social Contract Theory definitions(especially those by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, a pattern has been observed and even historically located to a specific archetype of person. Specifically, a man, aligning with early modern Europe and capitalist ideologies (Friend). The inaccuracy of the Liberal Individual, the core participant of the theory, is one of its most criticized aspects.

The Trail of Tears

Following this same flaw is another major criticism of Social Contract Theory; Race-Consciousness (Friend). The theory states that the other half of the societal contract is the exchange in which the government will protect the people’s rights. However, the theory fails to discuss who is defined as the “people.” Essentially, it does not account for those who have historically been deemed unworthy of rights.The argument highlights the recognition of white people having more qualification as human over people of color, asserting that race may be more of a political construct rather than social (Friend). Recognizable examples include treatment of Native Americans during European colonization of their land and the institution of slavery throughout much of history (Friend). The social contract is an agreement by all people in a society in which they give up certain freedoms and services in exchange for the government’s equal protection and provision. Yet, slaves who gave unrequited service and lacked the right of liberty, colonized peoples who were stripped of their right to property—humans who were deemed unworthy of human rights, were never given the other end of that deal. This raises the question of whether or not the social contract has truly applied to all members of society equally, and more importantly, serves as the universal explanation for the foundations of society.

Significance

Social Contract Theory is one of the most influential attempts to explain the origins of society, government, and political obligation. While theorists continue to debate the nature of humanity, the necessity of government, and the theory’s ability to account for all members of society equally, the questions it raises remain fundamental to political thought. At its core, the theory seeks to determine what individuals owe to society and what society owes to them in return. This exchange of rights, freedoms, protections, and responsibilities continues to shape political systems across the world. Even the criticisms of Social Contract Theory contribute to its significance, as they encourage further examination of equality, representation, and justice within government. Whether accepted as a complete explanation of society or merely a philosophical framework, Social Contract Theory remains a cornerstone of political philosophy and an enduring influence on the way people understand authority, rights, and their place within society.

Learn More

Contractarianism

Crash Course

The American Social Contract in the Declaration and Constitution

American Heritage Education Foundation

The Works That Started it All - Hobbes, Locke, & Rousseau

Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes

Two Treatises of Government

John Locke

The Social Contract

Jean Jacques Rousseau

References

Britannica Editors. (2022, July 20). State | Definition, history, figures, & facts | britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/state-sovereign-political-entity

CrashCourse. (2016, November 28). Contractarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #37 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Co6pNvd9mc

Duignan, B. (2025, June 13). The social contract and philosophy | Britannica. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/story/the-social-contract-and-philosophy

Friend, C. (n.d.). Social Contract Theory. Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/

Herbert, J. (2007). Constitution - Social Contract, rights, government | Britannica. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/constitution-politics-and-law/The-social-contract

Hobbes, T. (1909). Leviathan - Hobbes: Or the matter, form, and power of a Commonwealth, ecclesiastical and civil. Oxford : Clarendon Press.

Kamrath, A. (2019, July 18). The American social contract in the Declaration and Constitution - American Heritage Education Foundation, inc.. American Heritage Education Foundation. https://americanheritage.org/the-american-bible-inspired-social-contract/

Locke, J. (1823). Two Treatises of Government John Locke. York University | Toronto Canada. https://www.yorku.ca/comninel/courses/3025pdf/Locke.pdf

Munro, A. (2015, July 28). State of nature - locke, natural rights, equality | Britannica. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/state-of-nature-political-theory/The-state-of-nature-in-Locke

Rousseau, J.-J. (2010). The Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Early Modern Texts. https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/rousseau1762.pdf

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