GI - Coast

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GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND INVESTIGATIONS - COAST

Steps to undertake a fieldwork project:

Pre-fieldwork

1. Choosing a topic

Choose an area of focus that interests you. This will make the fieldwork process more enjoyable. Here are other guidelines when choosing a good fieldwork topic:

• Geographical – how the content relates to the concepts of place, space, scale, interdependence, physical and human processes, and environmental and cultural diversity.

• Manageable – aims can be achieved within the time limit.

• Relevant – relates to what is happening around you or is relevant to something you are studying.

• Feasible – background information is available on area of focus, and carrying out the investigation should be possible. The fieldwork site and data to be collected is accessible.

• Focused – investigate one issue or one question.

2. Formulate a hypothesis or guiding question

Allows you to decide on the purpose of investigation.

During a fieldwork

3. Collecting Data

Check that the fieldwork area is safe. Risk and danger may vary according to location: the slopes may be slippery after rain, or the area may not be safe due to criminal activities.

Find out the best time to conduct the fieldwork. For example, you may need to find out the tidal conditions when conducting fieldwork at the coast, or the opening hours of certain premises when conducting fieldwork on tourism. Research should be done before you collect data.

Before setting out to your fieldwork site, check that your equipment is in good working condition. If possible, rehearse the procedures and practise using the equipment beforehand. This will minimise errors when collecting data. When carrying out your fieldwork, ensure consistency and maintain rigour in the investigations.

At the fieldwork site, observe the following safety precautions:

· Be aware of your surroundings. For example, take note of the stability of cliffs and the possibility of rock fall at the foot of cliffs.

· Observe changes to the environmental conditions such as the weather and tides.

· Seek your teacher’s permission if you need to leave the fieldwork site. Do not go anywhere alone and make sure that someone else knows where you are going.

· Measure waves from safe position and do not go into the sea as there is a risk of strong waves.

· Wear suitable clothes and footwear. Apply sunblock.

4. Recording observations

A) Field sketches

Field sketches are drawings of physical features on-site.

You can annotate your field sketch to highlight and explain the physical features and processes present on-site.

· Hold the sketching frame to the part of the picture you wish to sketch.

· The sketching frame divides the sketch into nine parts. The division makes it easier to position objects within your sketch.

· Sketch frame by frame from the background to the foreground.

· Label and describe the features relevant to your study.

Field sketch in identifying different species of mangrove along a line of transect on the coast.

• Select a line of transect on the coast and then sketch and label the mangrove species in the sketch.

• Work out the approximate tidal range by looking for visual cues such as wet marks visible on the mangroves or wet sand. Indicate the high tide and low tide levels.

• Annotate the sketch on the adaption features in the mangrove which you observed. You can take photographs of the profile of the coast and mangroves along the line of transect. (please see below)

The table below provide details on what to look out for when sketching some physical features.

• For mangrove, stand at a right angle to the shoreline, or the area where the sea meets the land.

• Take photographs from at least two locations, such as the back shore and foreshore. Ensure that at least one third of the areas in the photographs overlap so that you can merge the photographs after you leave the site. Or you can use the panorama function of your camera to capture the stretch of mangrove under study.

• Take photographs up close especially the adaptation features as well as any living creatures you see in the mangrove forest.

C) Recording sheets and maps

Recording sheets help to organise information as it is recorded into categories. The recording sheet also allows anomalies to be recorded for data analysis to be carried out later.

The following is a recording sheet to investigate the guiding question "Are the seawalls along the coast of Singapore effective protection measures against coastal erosion.?' On the recording sheet state your name, the date, time, site,location of the protection measure as well as the wave direction and space to sketch the structure as well as list the coastal activities present.

Another example of a recording sheet will be one which you use to investigate the guiding question what are the mangrove species found in Singapore and how do they adapt to the coastal environment?

On the recording sheet state your name, the date, time, site. Provide a space to sketch the coast profile and mangroves and also space to record the adaption features of mangroves and any living creature seen in the mangrove.

Maps are important as they are visual indications of the locations where data is collected. It also allows the relationship between the physical and human environments to be inferred before investigations are conducted.

D) Taking measurements

· Beach profile and beach gradient

· Sediment analysis

· Wave characteristics and longshore drift

· Impact of groynes on the movement of sediments

· Cliff survey

· Bi-polar survey

Beach profile and beach gradient

The beach profile is a cross-section showing the slope of the beach. It can be drawn by measuring the beach gradient and then plotting the values on a graph paper. The beach gradient can be measured using a protractor clinometer.

To measure beach gradient and plot beach profile, follow the steps below:

1. Identify a line of transect, which is straight line across the beach that is perpendicular to the shoreline.

2. Note the following for the beach profile:

a) For a beach with a constant gradient. Mark out four points of equal intervals of 2 metres.

b) For an undulating beach, mark out points where there are significant changes in the beach slope.

3. Place a ranging pole each at the two points: Point A and Point B. Ensure that the ranging poles are held straight and do not sink into the sand as this may affect the readings.

4. Place a measuring tape along the line of transect.

5. To measure the gradient between points A and B, position the protractor clinometer on the ranging pole at point A and hold steady.

6. The gradient between points should be measured by two persons of the same height. Hold the clinometer at eye level. Align the clinometer with eye level of the other person as shown in the figure below.

7. Note the angle where the string crosses the scale on the curved edge of the protractor. This is the angle of elevation between your eye and the object you are sighting. Ensure that the angle is taken from a point on the ranging pole that coincides with the eye level of the person using the clinometer.

8. Read the angle and record it on the recording sheets.

9. Record the distance between point A and point B.

Coastlines are constantly shaped and re-shaped by eaves and wind, so the beach gradient may be different at various times such as after a storm or during low tide. The best time to measure the beach gradient is at low tide. To overcome the time constraint, different groups should measure the beach gradient at different locations simultaneously.

10. Repeat steps 3 – 6 to measure the gradients of the slope between the remaining points B and C, and C and D.

11. Using a graph paper, draw a graph with the x-axis showing the points of measurement (A-D) and the y-axis showing the gradient (°). For each point of measurement (A-D), indicate the gradient.

12. Connect the points with a smooth line to show the beach profile.

Kindly shared by Seng Kang Sec https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/a7f1bc9208b84f65af144d05fe851889

Sediment analysis-sieves

Sediment analysis provides information on the proportion of the types of sediments on a particular beach. To analyse sediments, you need to:

· Identify the sediment type;

· Measure the diameter of the sediment

· Determine the roundness of the sediment.

Identify the sediment type

1. Identify a line of transect. The line of transect ensures that the only variable is the distance between the sediments and the sea. Too many variables will affect reliability of the data.

2. Conduct sampling along the line of transect. Choose one of the following three types of sampling,

Systematic sampling: Samples are collected from a few locations with regular intervals in between. For example, samples are collected 2 metres apart from each other.

Random sampling: Locations are chosen without any fixed method. Random sampling reduces the occurrence of human biases. For example, intervals are selected based on random numbers by rolling a dice or from a random number table.

Stratified sampling: Samples are divided according to a specific characteristics. For example samples are only collected at the berm where there are linear sediments. This method involves human bias.

3. Sand samples should be obtained at regular intervals along the transect. A set of sieves can be used to sort the sand particles by size in the school laboratory.

4. Use the following steps to find out the diameter of the sand sediments found on a beach.

· Collect a 100 gram sample of sand.

· Pour the sand sediments through the set of sieves.

· Weigh the sand retained on each sieve. For example in Fig. 4.72b, 50 grams of sand sediments with a diameter of 0.125 mm is retained.

· Calculate the percentage of sand sediments retained from the original sample of 100 grams. As shown on Fig. 4.72b, the percentage of sand sediments with a diameter of 0.124 mm that is retained is 50%.

Measure the diameter of the sediment

Sediment analysis-quadrat

1. Place the quadrat on the pebbled beach. E.g. at intervals of 5m along the middle of the beach face.

2. 10 to 15 samples of pebbles are randomly picked from within the quadrat.

3. The long axes of the pebbles are measured using a vernier caliper or a ruler.

4. The angularity of the pebbles is determined by referring to the Power’s scale of roundness.

Determining the roundness of sediments

Observing the angularity or roundness of sediments allows you to deduce the rate of erosion. Compare the collected sediment with Power’s scale of roundness shown below:

Measuring sediment roundness

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Measuring sediment size

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Wave characteristics and longshore drift

Wave height, length, frequency, steepness and period indicate the level of wave energy. These wave characteristics allow you to gain a better understanding of erosion and deposition at a location.

The following lists methods that can be used to determine wave properties and the direction of sediment movement. When carrying out fieldwork investigations with these methods, include data about the wind speed and wind direction as they influence waves.

Measuring wave frequency

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Watch the video below and time the wave frequency.

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Measuring wave period

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Measuring wave height

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Measuring the direction of sediment movement - Longshore drift

1. Find a safe spot where your view of the open sea is not blocked.

2. Use a wind vane to find the direction of the wind. Record the direction of the wind.

3. Near the water’s edge, stick the first pole into the sand. At this spot, throw the orange a metre away from the water’s edge.

4. Observe the patterns of the travelling path of the orange for at least 10 minutes. Then stick the second pole into the sand where the orange land after being moved by a series of swash and backwash.

5. Use a measuring tape to measure the distance between the two poles. Record the distance. Identify the direction of sediment movement by noting the position of the second pole in relation to the first pole.

Measuring wind direction

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Measuring Longshore Drift

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Impact of groynes on the movement of sediments

The effectiveness of groynes can be investigated by analysing the type and the amount of sediment deposited on the updrift side of the groyne.

Cliff survey

Involves sketching the cliff profile, measuring cliff height and observing the relationship between the waves and the cliff.

Cliff height

• Standing a safe distance from the cliff, measure distance (A) using a tape measure. A distance of around 10 meters may be appropriate, but this depends on the size of the beach

• Use a clinometer towards the top of the cliff to measure angle (B)

  • The height of the cliff is calculated as follows:

    • Distance (A) x tan of angle (B) + height of observer

The method for measuring the height of a cliff using a clinometer.

Kindly shared by Seng Kang Sec https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/a7f1bc9208b84f65af144d05fe851889

Cliff sketch

A detailed sketch of the physical and human features of the cliffs at predetermined sampling points. Once cliff height has been established, the sketch can be drawn reasonably accurately to scale. Observations and annotations should be made of:

• Obvious features, for example high tide level, caves, wave-cut notch, wave-cut platform

• Basic geology (can be added later)

• Structure, for example bedding planes and joints, folding and faulting

• Conservation considerations, for example nesting birds, other animals

• Type of vegetation and any evidence of effect on erosion

• Evidence of erosion or mass movement, for example slumping, rock falls

• Human activity, for example built structures, management/protection measures, recreational activities

Photographic evidence can also be used to support and reinforce sketches.

Bi-polar survey

This survey is useful in evaluating human management strategies along the coast. Opposite adjectives, such as ‘ugly’ and ‘attractive’ should be chosen. A score is then assigned to each adjective.

Post-fieldwork

Analysing data

· Identifying data and trends

· Describing associations between data

· Explaining anomalies

Presenting data

· Putting data into maps, graphs, charts or diagram to enhance investigation

· Provides context to your investigation

Forming a conclusion

· Reflecting on the reliability of data

· Evaluating data collection methods

Identifying data and trends

Data collected during fieldwork needs to be organised into graphs and charts so that trends and patterns can be observed. The following shows various methods that data can be organised depending on the type of data collected.

When identifying trends and patterns, make a generalisation of the relationship between two variables in the graphs and charts. Figure 4.79 shows the location of four groynes and the data collected at these groynes. The height of sediments is collected at both sides of the groynes. Fig. 4.7b shows that more sediments are deposited on the updrift side of the groyne. This is in line with the direction of the longshore drift. The data also suggests that more deposition occurs at Site 1, where sediments accumulate on both the updrift and downdrift of the groyne. The accumulation of sediments on Site 1 suggests that the direction of the prevailing wind may change seasonally.

Describing association between data

The association between data can be described when a trend or pattern is established in Fig. 4.70, for example, sediments collected the updrift of each groyne show that the direction of the longshore drift is from the northeast.

Explaining anomalies

Not all data collected will follow the trend. Data that is inconsistent with the trend are called anomalies. These anomalies need to be explained to attain the most accurate analysis of data in Fig. 4.79, for examples, sediments are deposited at the downdrift side of the first groyne. This is different from the general trend, in which sediments are deposited on the updrift side of groynes. The anomaly may be due to the curve of the coast where the groyne is located.

Secondary sources may help explain anomalies. Check newspaper articles for current events that may have influenced the data collected. Search books or the internet for similar fieldwork tasks that may have encountered the same anomalies.

Presenting data

Presenting data involves putting data into graphs, charts, maps or diagrams to enhance your investigation. Presenting data can also involve using photographs, maps, sketches and presentations. During data analysis, you have already organised your data into a graph or charts, which can be enhanced by other data presentation methods.

One example will be a scatter graph to show the relationship between beach gradient and sediment size as shown below.

For example, annotated sketches or photographs may be used to illustrate the areas at the groynes where sediments have been deposited. A map can be marked off to show the locations of the groynes, as well as to indicate the direction of waves and hence the direction of the longshore drift. Together with the bar graph, these show if sediments are deposited along the groynes as they should be which helps in evaluating the effectiveness of the groynes.

Forming a conclusion

To form a conclusion, use the analysis of the data to determine if the hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. You can also use the analysis to prove an answer to the guiding question. In addition, you need to:

· Reflect on the reliability of data; and

· Evaluate data collection methods.

Reflecting on the reliability of data

The reliability of the data on the accuracy of the data collected may be affected by the followings.

• Physical condition of the fieldwork site

  • • Inaccessibility of some areas may result in unequal collection of samples.

• Weather conditions during data collection

  • • Unusual weather conditions may skew data collected. For example, if a storm had occurred the day before, more sediment would be deposited on the beach. The types of sediment may also differ from a normal day’s as the higher wave energy during storms allow sediment of a larger size to be carried and deposited on the beach.

• Scope and frequency of data collection

  • • Data is more accurate if there is a greater number of collection sites and data is collected more frequently.

• Occurrence of human errors

  • • Human errors such as measuring the wrong distance of intervals between collection sites and reading wrongly off the Vernier calipers when measuring sediment size could result in inaccurate data. Parallax error can occur when reading off the protractor clinometer producing inaccurate results.

Methods to reduce the inaccuracy of data collected.

· Check the weather condition. Ensure that data is collected at least a day after a major storm occurs.

· Collect sediment samples at five locations or more along a line of transect.

· Samples could also be collected along a second and third line of transect on each beach so that more accurate data can be obtained.

· Work with a classmate to collect data and make sure you each check the data measured by the other person.

Evaluating data collection methods

Data collection methods affect the reliability of data. By evaluating data collection methods, you are assessing if the investigation was carried out using the most appropriate method and if the method needs to be improved upon.

If no relationships can be drawn from your data, or if there are many anomalies, check the methods used to collect the data before concluding that there is no relationship between variables. For example, in Fig. 4.79, sediments were deposited at the downdrift side of the first groyne, which is an anomaly in data. This may be due to certain events. For example the area could have been disturbed by human activities the day before, or a nearby cliff might have collapsed. Improvements can be made to ensure that data collection methods are consistent.

Comment on reliability

• The data collection lacked reliability as it is difficult to cover such a large area,

• Middle of beach is a rough estimate.

• Size of beach material may varies from top to bottom of beach and also with cusps and berms.

• Sites at regular intervals along coast

• Sampling was systematic so the same at each site.

If you have identified data collection methods that you should improve upon, you may recommend different methods to help increase the accuracy and reliability of the data. Secondary sources such as reference books and the Internet may help you do so.

Improvements:

• could sample more sites along the beach

• could sample more pebbles/stones within the quadrat

• take transect from top to bottom of beach then sample three places equidistant apart and take average

• measure more than just long axis – could measure pebble roundness using a roundness index chart

3. POST-FIELDWORK PHASE

Part 1: Representing Data

How to represent the data collected for the various components:

· Drifting of beach materials along the coast using annotated diagrams and photographs/video

· Interview findings using pie charts, line graphs, bar graphs etc.

· Bipolar survey using bipolar graphs

Part 2: Analyses of Data/Offering Explanations

In this session, students work as a group to make sense of their data guided by a series of questions below:

1. Start from review of your inquiry hypotheses· What is the purpose of your study?

2. Study the data you have collected as well as your graphs. Numbers and pictures have meaning and patterns should emerge.

· Do you see any patterns in the data? (e.g. how the beach materials are moved along the coast?)

· Do the patterns differ for the various sites? (Is there a difference in the movement of beach materials at the groyne and breakwater sites?)

· How do the human management structures alter the coastal processes?

· Whose and What interests do human management structures protect?

· How effective are these human management structures in protecting human interests?

3. Does the data support or not support your hypotheses?

· In what ways does the data support or not support your hypotheses?

· Are there any other emerging patterns or anomalies to your data?

4. Explain your findings.

· Suggest some reasons why your hypotheses was supported or not supported, based on your prior knowledge and field experience.

· Are there any limitations to your data and analysis? If so, what are they?

Part 3: Reflecting on the Field Inquiry Process

Reflecting on the Field Inquiry Process

1. Methods

· Did the data collection method work? If not, why?

· Were the instruments you used appropriate? Why?

· Were there any problems with the method?

· Did these problems affect the accuracy of the results?

· Is there consistency in the recording of data? How did you ensure accuracy of data? How would you improve this the next time?

· What is lacking in your data? What new data would you have collected?

· How might such an investigation be improved if you have to do it again?

2. Presentation of Data

· Based on your purpose and inquiry question, why did you choose this method to represent your data?

· Are there any other ways of doing so? How would it have affected your analysis and interpretation?

3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

· How did you analyse your data? Did you look at your data collected to form your conclusions? Did your findings enhance your understanding of the coastal unit or did they create a disjuncture in your understanding of the content knowledge or inquiry process?

· How would you improve the analysis of data the next time?

· What further questions emerge about the coastal processes that are puzzling to you after this field inquiry?

Coastal studies fieldwork GCSE http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Coursework/Controlled%20assessment%20COASTS.htm