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1. Introduction: A Century of Crisis and Change
The 19th century was a period of profound transformation for Spain. It was marked by political instability, the loss of its vast American empire, and slow economic modernization compared to other European powers. The central conflict was between liberals, who wanted a modern constitutional state, and absolutists, who defended the old order.
2. The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
This war was both a war of independence against Napoleon and a profound internal political revolution.
Causes: Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and the forced abdication of King Ferdinand VII in favor of Joseph Bonaparte.
Key Event: The uprising in Madrid on the 2nd of May, 1808, which sparked a widespread popular war against the French invaders.
The Political Revolution: While the war raged, the Cortes (parliament) met in Cádiz and promulgated the Constitution of 1812 ("La Pepa"). It was one of the most liberal of its time, establishing national sovereignty, a constitutional monarchy, and individual rights.
3. The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833): The pendulum swings
The return of King Ferdinand VII in 1814 plunged Spain into political turmoil.
Sexenio Absolutista (1814-1820): The king abolished the Constitution of 1812 and restored absolutism.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): A liberal military uprising led by Colonel Rafael del Riego forced the king to swear allegiance to the constitution. This period ended with the intervention of the Holy Alliance ("Cien Mil Hijos de San Luis").
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833): Ferdinand VII returned to absolutist rule and brutally persecuted the liberals.
The American Independence: During this reign, Spain lost almost all of its vast empire in continental America.
4. The Carlist Wars and the Isabeline Period
The death of Ferdinand VII triggered a civil war over succession.
The Conflict: Ferdinand's brother, Carlos María Isidro, challenged the succession of his infant daughter, Isabella II, leading to the First Carlist War (1833-1840).
The Two Spains: This war represented a clash between two Spains:
Carlists: Defenders of the Old Regime ("Throne and Altar"): absolutism, traditionalism, and the privileges of the Church.
Isabelines (Liberals): Supporters of Isabella II and a constitutional, reforming monarchy.
The Liberal Reforms: The liberals in power carried out the confiscation of church lands (desamortización), most notably by Mendizábal. Their goal was to raise money for the state, create a class of landowners loyal to the regime, and reduce the power of the Church.
5. The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)
A period of great political experimentation.
The Glorious Revolution (1868): A military and popular uprising deposed Isabella II.
A Search for a New King: The Cortes wrote a new, more democratic constitution (1869) and searched for a new monarch. Amadeo I of Savoy was chosen but abdicated due to the country's immense political problems.
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874): Proclaimed as a solution, it was characterized by extreme instability, cantonalist uprisings, and the ongoing Third Carlist War. It ended with a military coup.
6. The Restoration Monarchy (1875-1902)
A period of forced political stability.
The System: After the coup, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in the figure of Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II. The political system was designed by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo.
How it Worked: It was based on the alternation (turno pacífico) of two main parties (Conservatives and Liberals) in power, orchestrated from above. Elections were manipulated ("caciquismo") to ensure the predetermined winner.
The 1898 Disaster: The system suffered a major blow with the Spanish-American War (1898), which resulted in the loss of Spain's last major colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This provoked a deep national crisis and led to a period of intellectual and artistic reflection known as the Generation of '98.
Suggested Comprehension Activities
Suggested Comprehension Activities
Define: Constitution of 1812, Carlism, Desamortización, Turno Pacífico.
Explain the main differences between liberals and Carlists in the 19th century.
Place on a timeline the following events: Constitution of 1812, First Carlist War, Glorious Revolution, First Republic, 1898 Disaster.
Analyze the political system of the Restoration. What were its mechanisms, and why was it both stable and undemocratic?
Reflection: Why was the loss of the last colonies in 1898 such a profound trauma for Spanish society?
Research a key figure from this period (e.g., Ferdinand VII, Baldomero Espartero, Emilio Castelar).
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