TEMA 1

1. WHAT WAS THE OLD REGIME?

The term "old regime" ( ancien régime in french) was coined by the french revolutionaries in the late 18th century to define the social, political, and economic system that existed in europe before the french revolution (1789). it was not just a government, but an entire way of organizing society that remained, in essence, from the middle ages until the end of the 18th century.

FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS:

• ESTATE-BASED SOCIETY: society was divided into estates, closed groups with unequal rights and obligations.

• AGRARIAN AND MANORIAL ECONOMY: based primarily on agriculture, with rudimentary techniques and the persistence of the manorial system.

• ABSOLUTE MONARCHY: political power resided in the king, who justified his authority by divine right.

• TRADITIONAL MINDSET: life and thought were dominated by religion and traditions.

2. THE ESTATE-BASED SOCIETY

Society was divided not by wealth, but by birth. it was a rigid and unequal pyramid.

A) THE PRIVILEGED ESTATES: they did not pay taxes (or very few) and held the main positions. they owned most of the land.

• NOBILITY: their theoretical function was to defend the kingdom (warfare). they enjoyed large estates, collected rents from peasants, and had their own courts of justice. there was a high nobility (dukes, counts) very close to the king and a low nobility (like the hidalgos in spain) with fewer resources.

• CLERGY: their function was to pray and ensure spiritual salvation. they controlled education, culture, and registered births, marriages, and deaths. they were also very wealthy thanks to the rents from their vast properties (mortmain) and the tithe.

B) THE NON-PRIVILEGED OR THIRD ESTATE: this was the largest group (over 90% of the population) and supported the rest of society with their work and taxes.

• PEASANTRY: the vast majority. they lived in very harsh conditions, subject to manorial duties (payments to the lord for using his mill, oven, etc.) and tithes. they were subjected to poor harvests and famines.

• BOURGEOISIE: an ascending urban group made up of merchants, bankers, artisans, and professionals (doctors, lawyers). they had economic wealth but were excluded from political power, which created great discontent.

• ARTISANS AND WORKERS: they worked in workshops (guilds) and lived on a meager salary.

• MARGINAL POPULATION: beggars, the poor, and the unemployed in the cities.

LEGAL INEQUALITY: a nobleman, no matter how poor, had more rights and honor than a wealthy bourgeois. this was one of the major contradictions that led to the system's crisis.

3. THE ECONOMY OF THE OLD REGIME

• SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE: it was the basis of the economy. techniques were very traditional (fallow land, old tools), leading to low yields. a bad harvest meant hunger for the population.

• MANORIAL SYSTEM: the land was in the hands of the nobility and clergy. the peasants who worked it had to pay them heavy rents in kind or money.

• ARTISANAL INDUSTRY: organized into GUILDS. these associations controlled production (quality, prices, hours) and limited innovation and competition.

• COMMERCE: limited, especially inland, due to poor communications and internal customs duties. international (overseas) trade was the most lucrative and enriched the bourgeoisie in port cities.

4. THE POLITICAL SYSTEM: ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

The predominant form of government was ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.

• WHAT DID IT CONSIST OF? the king concentrated ALL POWER in his person: he made the laws (legislative power), enforced them (executive power), and was the supreme judge (judicial power). his word was law.

• JUSTIFICATION: DIVINE RIGHT: kings claimed that their power came directly from god, not from the people. therefore, they were only accountable to god, not to their subjects. king louis xiv of france, the "sun king," is the prime example with his phrase "L'ÉTAT, C'EST MOI" ("I AM THE STATE").

• INSTRUMENTS OF ABSOLUTE POWER:

  • A CENTRALIZED BUREAUCRACY (officials loyal to the king).

  • A STANDING ARMY, professional and well-equipped.

  • A ROYAL TREASURY to finance the expenses of the court and wars.

  • THE COURT OF VERSAILLES (in france) as an instrument to control the nobility.

EXCEPTION: ENGLAND
England was the great exception. after the glorious revolution (1688), it established a PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY. the king's power was limited by a parliament (house of lords and house of commons) which controlled laws and taxes.

5. THE CRISIS OF THE OLD REGIME: THE ENLIGHTENMENT

Throughout the 18th century, a new intellectual movement, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, began to criticize and undermine the pillars of the old regime.

• DEFINITION: a european cultural and intellectual movement of the 18th century (the "age of enlightenment") that trusted in the use of REASON (the light) to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny, and to build a better world.

• CHARACTERISTICS:

  • TRUST IN HUMAN REASON.

  • CRITICAL SPIRIT towards the institutions of the old regime.

  • FAITH IN PROGRESS and education to improve society.

  • PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS on earth.

  • RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE and freedom.

• MAIN THINKERS (ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHERS):

  • MONTESQUIEU: proposed the SEPARATION OF POWERS (legislative, executive, and judicial) to prevent tyranny.

  • VOLTAIRE: fiercely defended FREEDOM OF THOUGHT, religious tolerance, and fought against the abuses of the church and the state.

  • ROUSSEAU: argued that sovereignty resides in the people ("GENERAL WILL") and that rulers must be at the service of the citizens. his idea of the "social contract" was fundamental.

  • DIDEROT AND D'ALEMBERT: editors of the "ENCYCLOPÉDIE", a monumental work that collected all the knowledge of the time and spread enlightenment ideas.

• ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM: some absolute monarchs (like charles iii of spain or frederick ii of prussia) partially adopted ideas from the enlightenment to modernize their kingdoms, but without giving up their power. their motto was "EVERYTHING FOR THE PEOPLE, BUT WITHOUT THE PEOPLE".

6. CONCLUSION: THE END OF AN ERA

The old regime entered a deep crisis in the 18th century due to:

1. the CRITICISMS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS, who questioned its legitimacy.

2. the DISCONTENT OF THE BOURGEOISIE, who wanted political power matching their wealth.

3. the SUBSISTENCE CRISES and the unrest of the peasantry.

4. the FINANCIAL PROBLEMS of the monarchy (spending on wars and court luxuries).

this crisis led to two revolutions that would mark the end of this era:

• THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1776): which created a republic based on enlightenment ideas.

• THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789): which was the death blow to the old regime in europe, opening the door to the modern era.

SUGGESTED COMPREHENSION ACTIVITIES

1. DEFINE IN YOUR OWN WORDS: old regime, estate-based society, absolute monarchy, divine right, enlightenment.

2. DRAW THE ESTATE-BASED PYRAMID and explain the differences between the privileged and non-privileged groups.

3. COMPARE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY with the english parliamentary monarchy.

4. MATCH EACH THINKER WITH HIS MAIN IDEA: montesquieu, voltaire, rousseau.

5. ANALYZE THE PHRASE: "everything for the people, but without the people". which political system does it refer to? what contradiction does it contain?

6. REFLECTION: do you think any characteristic of the old regime persists in today's society? which one and why?

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