Chapter 7

Pre-history of Linguistics

There is a long history of people who studied language, contributing significantly to the foundation of linguistics before its formal establishment as an academic discipline. 

• Pāṇini (c. 520–460 BCE): An ancient Indian grammarian, Pāṇini's work, Ashtadhyayi, is a foundational text in Sanskrit linguistics, showcasing systematic rules for grammar and linguistic analysis (Pawate & Pāṇini, 1987).

• Ferdowsi (935–1020 CE): The Persian poet Ferdowsi, through his epic Shahnameh, played a key role in preserving and promoting the Persian language and its cultural significance (Dabashi, 2019).

• Abū Ḥayyān Athīr ad-Dīn al-Gharnāṭī (circa 1256–1344): An Andalusian linguist and philologist, al-Gharnāṭī made significant contributions to Arabic linguistics, particularly in the study of grammar and rhetoric (Knysh, 1999).

• Johannes Goropius Becanus (1519–1572): A Dutch physician and linguist, Goropius proposed a theory that all languages derived from Dutch, though his ideas are now considered linguistically unsound (Goropius Becanus, 1569).

• Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749): Although primarily known for her contributions to physics and mathematics, du Châtelet also had an interest in language and linguistics. She produced a translation and commentary on Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica and engaged in discussions on language theory in her correspondence (Châtelet & Newton, 1756).

What is Language?

Characteristics of Human Language

Human language is a complex and dynamic system that serves as a fundamental tool for communication and expression. One key feature of language is its compositional nature, wherein smaller units, such as words, combine to create larger, meaningful structures like phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. This compositional aspect allows for the infinite generativity of language, enabling speakers to convey an endless array of thoughts and ideas through the creative arrangement of linguistic elements.

Time, in the context of language, encompasses the past, present, and future. Temporality involves the experience and perception of time. This temporal dimension allows individuals to articulate events and experiences that occurred before, during, or after the present moment. Through verb tenses, such as past, present, and future, language provides a framework for organizing and expressing temporal relationships.

Finally, referentiality is another crucial aspect of human language, referring to the capacity of language to denote and convey meaning about the external world. Words and linguistic expressions have referential power, allowing speakers to point to, describe, or symbolize objects, events, concepts, and relationships. This referential function is a cornerstone of effective communication, as it allows for the transmission of shared knowledge and understanding among members of a linguistic community. Through referentiality, language becomes a tool for expressing thoughts, sharing information, and building a collective understanding of the world.

Non-Human Animal Vocalizations

Non-human animal communication systems, while diverse and complex, lack these key features of true compositionality, referentiality, and a fully developed system for expressing temporality. Instead, non-human animal vocalizations often serve specific immediate purposes related to survival, mating, and social interactions.

Vervet monkeys provide an intriguing example of non-human animal communication. These primates use distinct alarm calls to warn their group members of specific types of predators. For instance, they have different alarm calls for ground predators (such as leopards), aerial predators (such as eagles), and a specific call for snakes (Seyfarth et al, 1980). While this showcases a level of specificity and referentiality, it does not entail the complex structure and compositional flexibility seen in human language.

In the marine world, whales exhibit another form of sophisticated communication. Humpback whales, for example, are known for their intricate songs that can last for hours (Dunlop et al, 2007). These songs, while complex, lack the full compositional structure found in human language. They may serve purposes related to mating or establishing territory, but the absence of referential abstraction and true compositionality distinguishes them from human language.

 Language and the Body

The relationship between human language and the body involves a complex interplay of genetics, neural structures, and anatomical features. At the genetic level, the FOXP2 gene has garnered significant attention for its association with language development (Marcus & Fisher, 2003). This gene is found in both modern humans, Neanderthals, and the other great apes (bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans). However, unique variations in the modern human FOXP2 gene set it apart. Researchers believe that alterations in FOXP2 may have played a crucial role in the evolution of language, contributing to the distinct linguistic capabilities of Homo sapiens.

Examining the neural basis of language reveals critical regions in the brain responsible for different linguistic functions. Wernicke's area, situated in the left hemisphere, is primarily associated with language comprehension (Ardila et al., 2016). Damage to this region can lead to language comprehension deficits, illustrating its pivotal role in processing the meaning of words and sentences. Complementing this, Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe, is crucial for language production (Musso et al., 2003). Lesions in Broca's area can result in difficulty articulating speech and constructing grammatically correct sentences.

The human hyoid bone, a unique component of the vocal tract, plays a crucial role in the intricate dance of speech and language production (Auvenshine & Pettit, 2020). This U-shaped bone, unlike those of other primates, is not directly connected to any other bones, allowing for increased mobility of the tongue and facilitating the complex articulatory movements essential for speech. Additionally, the hyoid bone influences vocal pitch and quality, contributing to the diverse range of sounds humans can produce.

Ethical Considerations

The study of language and its evolution raises ethical considerations, particularly in the realm of linguistic research involving humans. Genie's case is emblematic of the ethical challenges inherent in studying language development. Genie, a pseudonym given to a girl who experienced severe social isolation and abuse during her childhood, became the subject of an intensive study in the 1970s (Curtiss, 1977). While the research aimed to understand the critical period hypothesis (to be discussed in Chapter 11) and the effects of language deprivation, it sparked ethical concerns due to the nature of Genie's mistreatment and the potential long-term consequences on her well-being. This case underscores the importance of balancing scientific inquiry with ethical considerations, emphasizing the necessity of protecting the welfare of research participants, especially vulnerable populations.

The Monster Study, conducted in the late 1930s by Wendell Johnson and Mary Tudor at the University of Iowa, is another instance highlighting ethical lapses in linguistic research. The study aimed to investigate the effects of negative feedback on children's speech development by labeling them as stutterers, leading to psychological distress and lasting consequences for the participants. The ethical violations in the Monster Study include the lack of informed consent, causing harm to the participants, and the potentially irreversible impact on their psychological well-being. This study remains a cautionary tale in the field, emphasizing the ethical imperative of ensuring the dignity, rights, and well-being of individuals involved in linguistic research (Ambrose & Yairi, 2002).

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