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Hominina
Hominina
About seven million years ago, the Hominini tribe split into two subtribes... the Panina and the Hominina. They are distinguished from each other by their size, brain size, dental features, and other characteristics. Hominina are characterized by bipedalism, increased brain size, tool use, and various environmental adaptations, social structures, and behavioral traits. The Panina subtribe eventually results in chimpanzees and bonobos, our closest living relatives. In this chapter, we explore the Hominina subtribe, which developed into a variety of genera and species, including humans and proto-humans.
Here are a couple of things to note about vocabulary:
Homo and human mean the same thing.
The term modern human refers to the particular species Homo sapiens.
Proto-human or proto-homo refers to the non-Homo genera of the subtribe Hominina. In other words, it includes all species of Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Kenyanthropus, and Paranthropus.
Archaic-human or archaic-homo refers to the significant, pre Homo sapiens species of the genus Homo. The term archaic-homo is often used to refer to the following species:
Homo habilis: lived 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago and is associated with the Oldowan stone tool industry.
Homo erectus: lived 1.9 million years ago to about 100,000 years ago and is known for its advanced stone tool technology and adaptation to diverse environments.
Homo heidelbergensis: lived 700,000 to 200,000 years ago and is a transitional species exhibiting characteristics shared with both earlier and later hominin species.
Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals): lived 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals exhibited unique morphological features, cultural practices, and genetic contributions to modern human populations.
Forms of Hominina
Forms of Hominina
Refer to the Ape Chart as you review the genera and species below.
Genera: Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, and Ardipithecus
Genera: Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, and Ardipithecus
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
Lived approximately 6 to 7 million years ago.
Considered one of the earliest known hominins.
Fossil remains discovered in Chad, Africa.
Ape-like and human-like features, with a small brain size.
Likely bipedal, suggesting some form of upright walking.
Controversial and debated status as a direct human ancestor.
Orrorin tugenensis
Lived approximately 6 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in Tugen Hills, Kenya.
Considered one of the earliest known hominins.
Displays both ape-like and human-like traits.
Likely walked upright on two legs, indicating bipedalism.
Limb bones suggest adaptations for climbing and walking.
Orrorin praegens
Live approximately 6 to 5.7 million years ago.
Around the size of a chimpanzee and has tooth characters most similar to Ardipithecus ramidus.
Debate about where this is a separate species from tugenensis.
Ardipithecus ramidus
Lived approximately 4.4 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in the Afar Rift, Ethiopia.
One of the earliest known hominins.
Exhibits a mix of ape-like and human-like characteristics.
Likely capable of both bipedalism and tree-climbing.
The pelvis and foot structure suggest adaptations for upright walking.
Genus Australopithecus
Genus Australopithecus
Australopithecus anamensis
Lived approximately 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in East Africa, including Kenya and Ethiopia.
An early member of the Australopithecus genus.
Displayed a combination of ape-like and human-like traits.
Likely walked upright on two legs, showing signs of bipedalism.
Dental and skeletal evidence provide insights into its diet and lifestyle.
Australopithecus afarensis
Lived approximately 3.9 to 2.9 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in East Africa, including Ethiopia and Tanzania.
Famous for the discovery of "Lucy," one of its most well-known specimens.
Displayed a mixture of ape-like and human-like characteristics.
Definitive evidence of bipedalism, with skeletal adaptations for upright walking.
An omnivorous diet based on dental and isotopic studies.
Australopithecus afarensis is a key species in the study of human evolution.
It provides critical insights into the early stages of hominin development and locomotion.
Australopithecus garhi
Lived approximately 2.5 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in Ethiopia, particularly in the Bouri Formation.
Exhibited a blend of ape-like and human-like characteristics.
Fossil evidence suggests possible tool use and butchery.
Australopithecus deyiremeda
Lived approximately 3.4 to 3.3 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in the Woranso-Mille area of Ethiopia.
Exhibited a combination of ape-like and human-like features.
The evidence suggests a diet that included a variety of foods.
Australopithecus africanus
Lived approximately 2 to 3 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in South Africa, notably in the Taung and Sterkfontein Caves.
Belongs to the Australopithecus genus.
Displayed a mixture of ape-like and human-like characteristics.
Evidence of bipedalism, although with some primitive traits.
Australopithecus africanus is associated with a varied diet, including fruits and plants.
Australopithecus sediba
Lived about 2 million years ago.
Fossil remains found in South Africa.
Smaller teeth than other Australopithecines.
Genera Kenyanthropus and Paranthropus
Genera Kenyanthropus and Paranthropus
Kenyanthropus platyops
Lived approximately 3.5 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered at Lomekwi in Kenya.
Notable for its flat and relatively small face.
Displayed a mixture of primitive and more modern features.
Paranthropus boisei
Lived approximately 2.3 to 1.2 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in East Africa, including Tanzania and Kenya.
Distinctive for its robust cranial and dental features.
Displayed adaptations for a diet primarily consisting of tough plant material.
Paranthropus robustus
Lived approximately 2 to 1.2 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in South Africa, particularly in the Cradle of Humankind.
Recognized for its robust cranial and dental features.
Adapted for a diet that included hard or abrasive foods.
Genus Homo
Genus Homo
Did you know that modern Homo sapiens are not the only humans? The term "Homo" means human, and there are at least a dozen other human species. We'll study Homo sapiens in detail next. For now, let's explore the other humans.
Homo habilis
Lived approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in East and South Africa.
Considered one of the earliest members of the Homo genus.
Exhibited a mixture of primitive and more advanced traits.
Associated with the use of tools, indicating increased cognitive abilities.
Homo habilis is recognized as a key transitional species in human evolution.
Its existence marks a significant step in the development of the Homo lineage.
Homo rudolfensis
Lived approximately 1.9 to 1.8 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in the Koobi Fora region near Lake Turkana, Kenya.
Classified as a possible member of the Homo genus.
Characterized by a relatively large brain size and distinctive facial features.
The species is known from limited fossil evidence. Fossils include cranial remains, particularly a well-known specimen known as "KNM-ER 1470."
Some researchers consider it a distinct species, while others suggest it may represent variation within a different species, such as Homo habilis.
Homo ergaster
Lived approximately 1.9 to 1.4 million years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in East Africa, including Kenya and Tanzania.
Distinguished by a relatively modern body structure and limb proportions.
Likely the first hominin species to exhibit full-time bipedalism.
Associated with an increased reliance on tools and technology.
Homo erectus
Lived approximately 1.9 million to about 140,000 years ago.
The species exhibited a wide geographical distribution with fossil remains discovered in Africa, Asia, and Indonesia.
Characterized by a more modern body structure, including an upright posture.
Known for using tools and evidence of controlled use of fire.
Homo erectus represents an important stage in human evolution, often associated with the "Out of Africa" hypothesis.
Homo antecessor
Lived approximately 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago.
Fossil remains discovered at the Gran Dolina site in Atapuerca, Spain.
Displayed a mixture of primitive and more modern anatomical features.
Associated with evidence of tool use and butchery.
Homo heidelbergensis
Lived approximately 700,000 to 200,000 years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in various locations across Europe, Africa, and possibly Asia.
Classified as an archaic member of the Homo genus.
Displayed a combination of primitive and more modern traits.
Associated with evidence of complex tool use and potential symbolism.
Homo heidelbergensis represents a key species in human evolution.
Its existence has implications for the emergence of the Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens.
Homo neanderthalensis
Lived approximately 400,000 to 40,000 years ago.
Fossil remains discovered primarily in Europe and parts of Asia.
Classified as a distinct species within the Homo genus, closely related to Homo sapiens.
Recognized for its robust physique and distinctive anatomical features.
Associated with evidence of sophisticated tool use, symbolic behavior, and burial practices.
Homo neanderthalensis represents a remarkable branch of the human family tree.
Interbreeding with Homo sapiens.
Boule (1911) wrongly characterized Neanderthals as unintelligent, perpetuating a misconception that persists despite evidence to the contrary (Hammond, 1982).
Homo naledi
Fossils of Homo naledi have been dated to around 250,000 years ago.
Relatively small brain size, similar to early hominins.
Homo naledi had a small stature, with a slender build.
Modern human-like limb proportions, indicating bipedalism (walking on two legs).
Modern human-like hands and feet with grasping capabilities, but also some primitive traits.
Small teeth with some similarities to both early hominins and modern humans.
A small, rounded skull with a distinctive shape and small brow ridges.
Found in the Rising Star Cave system in South Africa.
Controversially, there is evidence to suggest that Homo naledi may have engaged in deliberate burial practices.
The dating of Homo naledi fossils raises questions about their coexistence with early Homo sapiens in Africa.
Homo longi
Lived at least 146,000 years ago.
Dragon man skull found in China.
Low skull, prominent brow, wide eye sockets, and a large mouth.
Homo luzonensis
Lived approximately 67,000 to 50,000 years ago.
Fossil remains discovered in the Callao Cave on the island of Luzon in the Philippines.
Displayed a mix of primitive and more modern traits, with small stature.
Associated with evidence of tool use and adaptation to a unique island environment.
Homo floresiensis
Lived approximately 100,000 to 60,000 years ago.
Fossil remains discovered on the island of Flores in Indonesia.
Classified as a distinct species within the Homo genus.
Characterized by small stature and a relatively small brain size.
Associated with evidence of sophisticated tool use and hunting.
Homo floresiensis is often referred to as the "Hobbit" due to its diminutive size.
Denisovans
Denisovans are an extinct group of hominins.
They are known primarily from DNA evidence extracted from a finger bone found in the Denisova Cave in Siberia.
Classified as a distinct group within the broader hominin family.
Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals but genetically distinct.
The Denisovan genome has provided insights into their genetic contributions to modern humans.
Their interbreeding with Homo sapiens has left a genetic legacy in some modern human populations, particularly in Asia and Oceania.
They have no formal species name.
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Slideshows 🖼️
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens
Finally, we have modern Homo sapiens. We can explore their characteristics, variation, development, and growth.
Characteristics
Characteristics
Here are some of the general characteristics of Homo sapiens.
(self described) Highly intelligent and advanced cognitive abilities
Bipedal locomotion (walk upright on two legs)
Varied cultures and societies
Complex languages and communication
Extensive use of tools and technology
Omnivorous diet
Wide geographic distribution
Impact on ecosystems and environment
Unique art, music, and abstract thinking
Global adaptability and population growth
Varied physical characteristics among populations
Variation
Variation
Homo sapiens have some variation regarding health outcomes and superficial physical characteristics, such as skin tone, hair color and texture, and facial features.
The prevailing notion once suggested that various modern human races stemmed from distinct archaic Homo species like Homo erectus in Asia, Homo antecessor in Spain, and Neanderthals in Europe. This belief theorized that these archaic species gave rise to biologically distinct human races. However, this perspective has been disproved by advances in DNA analysis. Modern research indicates that all humans are descendants of a single mass migration, with some interbreeding occurring with Neanderthals and Denisovans, closely related species to Homo sapiens. In short, there is no biological category of race.
Contrary to the earlier belief of distinct racial origins, the genetic makeup among humans is remarkably uniform. In fact, the genetic diversity within any racial group often surpasses the variation observed between different racial groups. Human populations have not remained isolated long enough to evolve into separate subspecies, making humans among the most genetically homogeneous species. To illustrate, the genetic difference between any two humans is minuscule; only one out of every thousand nucleotides varies. In contrast, penguins exhibit twice as much genetic difference between individuals, while fruit flies possess tenfold the genetic variation seen in humans. There is as much diversity between two fruit flies as there is between humans and chimpanzees (Herbes-Sommers et al., 2003).
Such findings underscore that our genetic and phenotypic similarities far outweigh superficial differences like skin color or hair texture. Comparatively, even within a single species like cattle, the range of phenotypic variation exceeds that found across human populations, highlighting the minimal biological distinctions among humans.
Map of Skin Tone Distribution
Chaplin (2004)
Growth and Development
Growth and Development
Refer to the lists below, which provide details for the major biological stages of modern human development: prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Prenatal Development
Germinal Stage
About two weeks from fertilization.
It begins with fertilization, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division, forming a blastocyst.
During this stage, the blastocyst travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus.
Implantation occurs when the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall.
The gestational age is measured in weeks from the first day of the last menstrual period (LMP).
Embryonic Stage
The embryonic stage follows the germinal stage and lasts from weeks 3 to 8 (6 weeks total).
It's characterized by the rapid development of major organs and systems (organogenesis).
The neural tube forms, leading to the development of the nervous system.
Limb buds start to appear during this stage.
Critical periods exist for the development of various organs.
Pregnancy symptoms may become more noticeable during this stage.
Fetal Stage
The fetal stage follows the embryonic stage and lasts from week 9 until birth.
During this stage, organs and systems continue to grow and mature.
Fetal movements, known as quickening, begin.
The brain undergoes rapid growth.
Reflexes such as swallowing, sucking, and grasping develop.
Vernix (a protective coating) and lanugo (fine hair) cover the fetus.
Infancy
Newborn reflexes and abilities
Newborns exhibit a range of reflexes and innate abilities.
Reflexes include the rooting reflex, Moro reflex, and sucking reflex.
Newborns have a strong grasp reflex.
They display the startle reflex and the stepping reflex when supported.
Abilities such as crying, blinking, and eye tracking develop from birth.
Physical growth and motor development
Physical growth is rapid during the first year of life.
Infants gain weight and length, with head growth matching body growth.
Motor development includes milestones like head control, rolling, and sitting.
Crawling, standing, and eventually walking are significant achievements.
Muscle development and coordination improve over time.
Cognitive and social development
Cognitive development involves learning, memory, and problem-solving.
Infants start to recognize faces and respond to their caregivers.
Social development includes forming attachments and emotional bonds.
Language development begins with cooing and babbling.
Early interactions with caregivers lay the foundation for future relationships.
Environmental influences
The environment plays a crucial role in shaping infant development.
Nutrition is essential for growth and brain development.
Sensory stimulation and a safe, nurturing environment are vital.
Cultural practices and parenting styles impact infant development.
The presence of stressors or adverse conditions can have negative effects.
Childhood
Physical growth and development
Childhood is marked by continued physical growth and development.
Growth spurts occur during different stages of childhood.
Children develop fine and gross motor skills.
Puberty is a significant physical milestone in adolescence.
Nutrition and healthcare profoundly impact physical development.
Cognitive milestones
Cognitive development in childhood includes memory, problem-solving, and reasoning.
Children develop language skills, expanding vocabulary and grammar.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development (e.g., sensorimotor, preoperational) are relevant.
School-age children learn abstract thinking and critical reasoning.
Cognitive milestones can vary based on individual and cultural factors.
Social and emotional development
Childhood involves forming relationships and understanding emotions.
Attachment to caregivers during infancy influences social development.
Peer relationships become more important in later childhood.
Emotional regulation and empathy are key aspects of emotional development.
Cultural norms and family dynamics play a significant role in socialization.
Environmental and Cultural Influences
The environment and culture profoundly shape childhood experiences.
Socioeconomic factors impact access to resources and opportunities.
Cultural values and beliefs influence parenting styles and child-rearing practices.
Early childhood education and extracurricular activities contribute to development.
Understanding the cultural context is crucial for assessing child development.
Adolescence
Puberty and physical changes
Puberty typically begins between the ages of 9 and 16.
Physical changes, such as growth spurts, hormonal changes, and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Individual variation in the timing and pace of puberty.
Cognitive development and identity formation
Development of abstract thinking and critical reasoning.
Erikson's (1968) theory of identity development and the challenges adolescents face in forming their identities.
Self-concept and self-esteem in identity formation.
Social and peer influences
Significance of peer relationships and peer pressure.
Impact of family dynamics and the need for autonomy.
Influence of media and technology on adolescents' social lives.
Adulthood
Stages
Adulthood is divided into stages: early (18-40), middle (40-65), and late (65+).
Each stage comes with unique challenges and opportunities.
Early adulthood often involves major life transitions, such as career and family for many.
Middle adulthood focuses on career consolidation and family responsibilities.
Late adulthood may involve retirement and reflection on life.
Physical changes and aging
Adulthood is marked by gradual physical changes and aging.
Skin wrinkles, muscle mass decreases, and bone density declines.
Cognitive changes may include a decline in processing speed.
Cardiovascular health and chronic diseases become more prominent.
Healthy lifestyle choices can mitigate some age-related changes.
Cognitive and emotional development
Cognitive development continues in adulthood, with different focuses.
Wisdom and expertise can develop with age.
Emotional regulation and coping strategies evolve.
Midlife crisis and changes in life goals may occur.
Emotional intelligence becomes increasingly important.
Cultural and environmental factors
Cultural norms influence attitudes toward aging and elderly care.
Family dynamics vary across cultures, impacting support systems.
Economic factors and access to healthcare affect the aging process.
Retirement policies and social programs differ globally.
The role of older adults in society can vary widely.
Worksheet and Study Guide
Worksheet and Study Guide
The Worksheet and Study Guide are for your own individual study. These are not for a grade.
Study Guide
Study Guide
Distinguish between modern human, proto-human, and archaic-human.
Review the extinct genera and species of subtribe Hominina. (No, there will not be test questions about the smallest details here. As long as you've spent some time exploring these, you will be fine.)
Describe the characteristics of Homo sapiens.
Explain whether or not race is a biological category.
Distinguish between the biological stages of modern human development. (No, there will be test questions about the smallest details here. As long as you've spent some time exploring these, you will be fine.)
References
References
Boule, M. (1911). L'homme fossile de la chapelle-aux-saints. Masson.
Chaplin G. (2004). Geographic distribution of environmental factors influencing human skin coloration. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 125(3), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10263
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. Norton
Hammond, M. (1982). The expulsion of the neanderthals from human ancestry: Marcellin Boule and the social context of scientific research. Social Studies of Science, 12(1), 1–036. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631282012001002
Herbes-Sommers, C., Strain, T., H., & Smith, L. (Directors). (2003). Race - The power of an illusion: Episode 1 - The difference between us. [Film]. California Newsreel.
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