Chapter 10

Historical Linguistics

Historical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages change over time. It examines the relationships between languages, reconstructs their common ancestors, and explores the processes that lead to linguistic diversity and change.

Comparative Method

The comparative method in historical linguistics is a technique used to establish relationships between languages and to reconstruct their common ancestral forms. It involves comparing languages to identify similarities in vocabulary, grammar, and phonology, which can then be used to infer their shared history and evolution from a common source.

Steps

Here are the basic steps of the comparative method in historical linguistics:

• Select Languages: Choose related languages for comparison.

• Choose Vocabulary: Select basic, stable words for analysis.

• Gather Data: Collect words in each language.

• Identify Cognates: Find words with potential common origins.

• Phonological Analysis: Compare sounds for regular correspondences.

• Semantic Analysis: Examine word meanings for consistency.

Examples

In the context of phonology, the following examples illustrate how different languages pronounce similar concepts:

• "One": English /wʌn/, German /aɪns/, Dutch /eːn/, Swedish /ɛt/

• "Hand": English /hænd/, German /hant/, Dutch /hɑnt/, Swedish /hɑnd/

• "Book": English /bʊk/, German /buːχ/, Dutch /buk/, Swedish /buːk/

• "Eat": English /iːt/, German /ˈɛsən/, Dutch /ˈeːtə(n)/, Swedish /ˈɛːta/

Limitations

The comparative method in historical linguistics has several limitations that can affect its accuracy and applicability. One major constraint is the availability and quality of data. Historical linguists rely on written records and linguistic evidence, which may be scarce or incomplete for many languages and time periods. This limitation can make it challenging to establish accurate language relationships and reconstruct proto-languages with certainty.

Another limitation is the issue of language isolation. Some languages lack close relatives or have undergone extensive language change, making it difficult to find suitable comparison points. Lexical gaps, where not all words have clear cognates in related languages, can also pose challenges. This can lead to incomplete or inaccurate reconstructions of vocabulary and grammar.

Furthermore, the comparative method assumes a regularity in sound change, but in reality, sound changes can be irregular and unpredictable. This variability can make it challenging to determine which linguistic features are due to inheritance and which are the result of borrowing or chance similarities. Cultural and historical factors, such as language contact and borrowing, can further complicate the analysis, leading to potential misinterpretations of linguistic relationships.

Overall, while the comparative method is a powerful tool for reconstructing language history, it is not without its limitations. Researchers must carefully consider these limitations and use multiple lines of evidence to support their conclusions in historical linguistic analysis.

Proto-Language Reconstruction and Genealogy

Proto-language reconstruction is a foundational aspect of historical linguistics, aiming to reconstruct the common ancestor of a group of related languages, known as a language family. By comparing related languages and identifying systematic correspondences in vocabulary, grammar, and phonology, linguists can infer the features of the proto-language. This process enables the construction of language family trees, known as genealogies, illustrating the historical relationships between languages.

Major language families worldwide include the Indo-European family, which encompasses languages such as English, Spanish, Hindi, and Russian, among others. The Sino-Tibetan family includes Mandarin, Cantonese, Tibetan, and several other languages spoken in East Asia. The Afro-Asiatic family includes Arabic, Hebrew, and several languages of North Africa and the Middle East. The Niger-Congo family includes Swahili, Yoruba, and many other languages of sub-Saharan Africa. These language families are characterized by shared features and a common ancestral language.

Language classification methods and techniques vary but often involve comparing vocabulary, grammar, and phonology to establish relatedness between languages. The comparative method, for example, compares languages to identify systematic correspondences and reconstruct proto-languages. The comparative method is essential for establishing language families and understanding linguistic evolution.

Language evolution theories propose different models for how languages change over time. One prominent theory is the wave model, which suggests that language change spreads in waves across populations (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, 2003). Another theory is the punctuated equilibrium model, which posits that languages remain stable for long periods and then undergo rapid change. These theories help explain the complex processes underlying language evolution (Dixon, 1997)..

Language divergence refers to the process by which a single language splits into multiple distinct languages over time. This can occur due to geographical or social factors that lead to isolation and linguistic differentiation. In contrast, language convergence occurs when languages come into contact and influence each other, leading to the adoption of similar linguistic features.

Tree models, such as the family tree model, are used to represent the relationships between languages within a language family. These models illustrate how languages have evolved from a common ancestor and help linguists understand the historical development of languages. Language family trees provide a visual representation of the connections between languages and are crucial for studying language evolution and classification.

Sound Change

Sound change and phonological shifts are core elements of language evolution, gradually altering word pronunciation over time. These shifts, influenced by factors like language contact and natural phonetic tendencies, are key to understanding historical linguistics and language family relationships.

Grimm's Law

Grimm's Law, formulated by linguist Jacob Grimm in the early 19th century, describes a systematic sound change in the history of the Germanic languages (Douse, 1876).

Before we can get into Grimm's Law, there are some important things to know about the context. The languages of Europe and Western/Southwestern Asia are part of the Indo-European language family. These languages share a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European. Grimm's Law describes a consonant change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Indo-European to the Germanic languages. The Germanic languages, including German, English, Dutch, Frisian, Yiddish, and the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Faroese, Icelandic, and Danish), as well as extinct languages like Gothic, are all part of this language group.

During the transition from Proto-Indo-European to the Germanic languages, several significant consonant shifts occurred. Voiceless stops, which are sounds produced without vibrating the vocal cords, shifted to voiceless fricatives, which are sounds produced with friction in the vocal tract. Voiced stops, produced with vocal cord vibration, shifted to voiceless stops. Voiced aspirated stops, produced with both vocal cord vibration and a burst of air, shifted to voiced stops. These shifts are central to Grimm's Law and characterize the evolution of the Germanic languages. Let's cover each of these individually.

Voiceless Stops to Voiceless Fricatives (First Consonant Shift)

Voiceless stops (sounds produced by briefly stopping airflow) evolved into voiceless fricatives (sounds produced with friction in the vocal tract).

The * below represents reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language (since there is no documented record of it). I'll use Latin as an example, not because it's the ancestor of English (it isn't), but because Latin is a widely used non-Germanic language descended from PIE that preserves much of the PIE consonant pronunciation. The examples below contain mostly Latin and English cognates. Cognates are words in different languages that have a common origin, typically because they evolved from the same ancestral language. Cognates often have similar meanings and sound structures, reflecting their shared linguistic heritage.

• PIE *p becomes Germanic f

  • Latin pater is cognate to English father.

  • Latin piscis is cognate to English fish.

• PIE *t becomes Germanic þ (thorn, th sound)

  • Latin tenuis is cognate to English thin.

• PIE *k becomes Germanic h

  • Latin cord- (coronary) is cognate to English heart.

  • Latin canini (canine) is cognate to English hound.

Voiced Stops to Voiceless Stops (Second Consonant Shift)

Voiced stops (sounds produced with vibration of the vocal cords) shifted to voiceless stops (sounds produced without vibrating the vocal cords).

• PIE *b becomes Germanic p (Hard to find examples of b → p because of a lack of b sounds in PIE languages.)

  • Latin bibere (to drink) is cognate to English sip.

• PIE *d becomes Germanic t

  • Latin dent is cognate to English tooth.

    • Notice the Latin dent to English tooth illustrates the previous Voiceless Stops to Voiceless Fricatives (First Consonant Shift).

• PIE *g (hard g) becomes Germanic k

  • Latin gel is cognate to English cold.

Voiced Aspirated Stops to Voiced Stops (Third Consonant Shift)

Voiced aspirated stops (sounds produced with both vocal cord vibration and a burst of air) shifted to voiced stops (sounds produced with vibration of the vocal cords). Latin loses these voiced aspirated stops, so we have to switch to different languages that still preserve the PIE sound. These sounds can be found in Sanskrit and Greek.

• PIE *bh becomes Germanic b

  • Sanskrit bhrātā is cognate to English brother.

    • Notice the Sanskrit bhrātā to English brother is another example of the previous Voiceless Stops to Voiceless Fricatives (First Consonant Shift).

• PIE *dh becomes Germanic d

  • Sanskrit Mádhu (honey or sweet drink) is cognate to English mead (drink made from honey).

• PIE *gh becomes Germanic g (Gh disappears in sanskrit, so let’s switch to Greek, where it’s written as kh (aka chi, pronounced like ky, using the character x.)

  • Greek khḗn is cognate to English goose.

Difficulties with Grimm's Law

Grimm's Law applies to Germanic languages and explains sound changes in native Germanic words. However, it does not apply to many English words borrowed from non-Germanic Indo-European languages like Latin and French. For example, the word "father" in English (native Germanic) follows Grimm's Law, where the Proto-Indo-European *p becomes "f" in Germanic languages, but the word "paternal" (borrowed from Latin) does not follow this pattern. Other examples include "brother" (native) versus "fraternity" (borrowed). Refer to the video below in which Old Norse linguist Jackson Crawford explains all of this.

Great Vowel Shift in English

The Great Vowel Shift was a significant sound change that occurred in the English language between the 14th and 18th centuries (Wolfe, 1972). It affected the pronunciation of long vowels in Middle English, leading to the modern English vowel system. The Great Vowel Shift is crucial for understanding the evolution of English pronunciation and spelling.

Key Points

• Timing: The Great Vowel Shift began around the 14th century and continued into the 18th century.

• Scope: It affected the long vowels of Middle English, particularly those at the top and front of the mouth.

• Cause: The exact cause of the Great Vowel Shift is not known, but it was likely influenced by various linguistic, social, and cultural factors.

• Outcome: The Great Vowel Shift resulted in a significant change in the pronunciation of English vowels, leading to the modern English vowel system.

Effects of the Great Vowel Shift

• Vowel raising: Many long vowels were "raised" or pronounced higher in the mouth.

• Diphthongization: Some vowels became diphthongs, which are complex vowel sounds that glide from one vowel to another within the same syllable.

• Lengthening and shortening: Some vowels were lengthened or shortened, depending on their position in the word.

Examples of the Great Vowel Shift

• Middle English "name" [naːmə] > Early Modern English "name" [neːm]

• Middle English "bite" [biːtə] > Early Modern English "bite" [baɪt]

• Middle English "goose" [ɡoːs] > Early Modern English "goose" [ɡuːs]

Impact on Spelling

The Great Vowel Shift is one reason why English spelling is often irregular, as the pronunciation of many words changed while their spelling remained the same.

This led to a disconnect between the spelling and pronunciation of many English words, which continues to present challenges for learners of the language.

Significance

The Great Vowel Shift marks a crucial stage in the development of the English language, leading to the modern pronunciation and spelling of many words.

It contributed to the uniqueness and complexity of the English language, as well as its rich linguistic history.

Refer to the video below in which Harvard English Professor Daniel Donoghue explains the Great Vowel Shift.

Grammatical Change

Grammatical change refers to the evolution of a language's grammar over time, including changes in syntax, morphology, and grammatical structures.

Loss of Grammatical Gender in English

Old English had a complex system of grammatical gender, with three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) that influenced not only nouns but also adjective agreement and pronouns. However, over time, English underwent a significant simplification, resulting in the loss of grammatical gender for nouns. This change occurred gradually, with the gender system fading away and leaving only remnants in the form of gendered pronouns. Today, English retains gendered pronouns like "he," "she," and "it," but these are the last vestiges of the Old English gender system (Jones, 1988).

Word Order Shifts in Germanic Languages

Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of Germanic languages, had a flexible word order and relied heavily on inflections to convey grammatical information. This flexibility allowed speakers to emphasize certain elements of a sentence without changing the overall meaning. However, over time, Germanic languages underwent a shift from a more inflectional system to a greater reliance on word order to determine sentence structure. This shift led to a more fixed word order in modern Germanic languages, such as English, German, Dutch, and Swedish. For example, in English, the subject-verb-object (SVO) order is standard, as in "I eat apples." This shift in word order has simplified the grammar of Germanic languages compared to their Proto-Germanic ancestor, where inflection played a more prominent role in determining sentence meaning (Struik, 2022).

Simplification of Case Systems in Romance Languages

In Latin, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives had different forms depending on their grammatical function in a sentence. These various forms are known as cases. Each case had a specific ending that indicated its role (e.g., subject, object, possession) in the sentence. However, in Romance languages, many of these different forms were simplified or merged, leading to fewer distinct forms for each word. This simplification resulted in a more streamlined system where the same word form is often used for different grammatical functions, with the role determined by word order or prepositions (Nicolae, 2021).

For example, consider the Latin word for girl, which is puella. This word will be formatted differently depending on its case. Here are a few examples.

• Nominative Case (subject): puella

• Accusative Case (direct object): puellam

• Genitive Case (possession): puellae

However, when we examine the following Romance languages, they simply use the same word repeatedly regardless of the case.

• Italian: ragazza

• Spanish: chica

• French: fille

Here's another example with the word book, which is liber in Latin:

• Nominative Case (subject): liber

• Accusative Case (direct object): librum

• Genitive Case (possession): libri

• Dative Case (indirect object): libro

Again, the Romance languages simply use the same word in each of these cases.

• Italian: libro

• Spanish: libro

• French: livre

Here is one more example with the word hand, which is manus in Latin:

• Nominative Case (subject): manus

• Accusative Case (direct object): manum

• Genitive Case (possession): manus

• Dative Case (indirect object): manui

• Ablative Case (movement away from): manu

Again, the Romance languages simply use the same word in each of these cases.

• Italian: mano

• Spanish: mano

• French: main

Changes in Politeness (Social Distance) Levels in Japanese

Politeness and social distance in language refer to the ways in which speakers show respect or familiarity towards others. In Spanish, for example, the use of "tu" (informal "you") and "usted" (formal "you") illustrates this concept. "Tu" is used with close friends or family, while "usted" is used with strangers, elders, or in professional settings.

Similarly, in Japanese, politeness levels, or "keigo," have evolved to reflect social distance. Traditionally, Japanese had a complex system of honorifics and humble forms to show respect. However, with societal changes and modernization, the use of these forms has become less rigid. There is now a trend towards simplification, with fewer people using the most formal language forms in everyday speech. This shift reflects broader changes in Japanese society towards a more casual and egalitarian communication style (Haugh & Obana, 2011).

• Classical Japanese (Nara and Heian Periods, 8th-12th centuries): More emphasis on honorific language but less on humble language.

• Medieval Japanese (Kamakura and Muromachi Periods, 12th-16th centuries): Samurai culture emphasized codes of conduct that influenced language use. Development of humble and honorific language continued.

• Early Modern Japanese (Edo Period, 17th-19th centuries): Full development of the complex system of politeness levels. It became more codified and structured.

• Modern Japanese (Late 19th century - present): Continued use of politeness distinctions. Ongoing evolution of Japanese language and culture.

Development of Tense and Aspect Markers in Chinese

The development of tense and aspect markers in Chinese involves the evolution of linguistic features to indicate the timing and completion of actions. In the past, Chinese lacked explicit markers for tense or aspect, relying on context and other cues. However, modern Chinese has adopted more explicit markers, such as "了" (le), "过" (guò), "着" (zhe), and "在" (zài), to indicate completion, experience, ongoing actions, and progressiveness, respectively. This shift has enhanced the clarity of temporal and aspectual meanings in the language (Wu, 2022).

• Ancient Chinese: Classical Chinese (Approx. 11th century BC - 3rd century AD):

  • Minimal tense and aspect markers.

  • "已" (yǐ) indicated completion, while "者" (zhě) indicated ongoingness.

• Middle Chinese (3rd-13th centuries AD):

  • Development of a more complex tonal system and phonological changes, but tense and aspect markers remained minimal.

  • "已" (yǐ) and "者" (zhě) persisted.

• Modern Chinese (Late 19th century - present):

  • Significant linguistic reforms and changes in China led to the emergence of Modern Standard Chinese (Mandarin) as the national language.

  • "了" (le) became a commonly used aspect marker indicating completion.

  • Time expressions like "昨天" (zuótiān, yesterday) and "明天" (míngtiān, tomorrow) indicated past and future actions.

Lexical Change

Lexical change in language refers to the evolution and transformation of words over time.

Borrowing and Loanwords

Borrowing and loanwords are linguistic phenomena that occur when languages come into contact, leading to the adoption of words from one language into another. This process is a significant driver of language change and evolution, as it introduces new vocabulary and concepts. Language contact can occur through various means, such as trade, migration, colonization, and cultural exchange, and it often results in the enrichment and diversification of languages (Durkin, 2014).

The impact of borrowing and loanwords on language evolution is profound. It not only adds new words to a language but also influences pronunciation, grammar, and even cultural concepts. For example, English has borrowed extensively from French, Latin, and Greek, resulting in a lexicon that reflects its historical contact with these languages. Similarly, Spanish has borrowed from Arabic, reflecting the centuries-long presence of Arabic-speaking communities in the Iberian Peninsula.

• English:

  • Chocolate (comes from Nahuatl chocolātl)

  • Guitar (comes from Spanish guitarra)

• Spanish

  • Alcohol (comes from Arabic al-kuḥl)

  • Jardín (garden) (comes from Old French jardin)

Pidgin and creole languages are fascinating examples of how language contact can lead to the development of new linguistic systems. Pidgin languages arise when speakers of different languages come into contact and need to communicate, often for trade or other practical purposes. These languages are simplified forms of communication, with limited vocabulary and simplified grammar. Creole languages, on the other hand, emerge when a pidgin language becomes the native language of a community, leading to its expansion and elaboration into a fully developed language with its own grammar, vocabulary, and identity. Pidgin languages are characterized by their simplified grammar and vocabulary, while creole languages are more complex and fully developed, often with unique features that distinguish them from their parent languages. These processes demonstrate the dynamic nature of language and its ability to adapt and evolve in response to contact and interaction between different linguistic communities (Burling, 1992).

Semantic Shift

Semantic shift refers to the phenomenon where the meaning of a word changes over time. This can happen for various reasons, such as cultural changes, linguistic influences from other languages, or simply through the natural evolution of language. Semantic shift can lead to words acquiring new meanings, losing old meanings, or shifting in nuance.

Broadening refers to the expansion of a word's meaning to encompass a broader or more general sense than its original meaning. For example, the word "dog" originally referred to a specific breed of domesticated canine (mastiff) but has since broadened to include all breeds of domesticated dogs. The term "emotional labor" introduced by sociologist Arlie Hochschild (1983) initially referred to having to perform emotions while on the job, such as flight attendants who have to smile. Now, the concept encompasses a broader range of emotional work, including managing and regulating emotions in various interpersonal interactions, both in and out of the workplace. This expansion illustrates how the term has broadened in its scope and application beyond its original context.

Narrowing, on the other hand, involves a word's meaning becoming more specific or limited compared to its earlier, more general sense. An example of narrowing is the word "meat," which once referred to any kind of food but has narrowed to specifically mean the flesh of animals used for food, excluding fruits and vegetables. Similarly, the word "fraction" originally referred to portions of a whole. While 99/100 is a fraction, people often use the term "only a fraction" to imply a small portion, such as 1/100, illustrating how the term has narrowed in its meaning to denote a small or insignificant part of a whole.

Amelioration occurs when a word acquires a more positive or elevated connotation compared to its earlier neutral or negative sense. For instance, "knight" originally referred to a young servant or attendant but underwent amelioration to signify a person granted an honorary title for valor and service. Similarly, the term "bargain" has shifted in meaning from simply referring to a deal to now often being used to indicate getting a good deal or value for something purchased, illustrating how the word has taken on a more positive connotation over time.

Pejoration, conversely, describes a word taking on a more negative or lower connotation than it had originally. An example is the word "villain," which used to mean a common peasant or farmer but later underwent pejoration to denote a wicked or malicious person. Similarly, the term "performativity," as described by Butler (1989), refers to how identities are constructed by the actions taken by individuals. However, people commonly use the word "performative" to describe superficial actions that people take. In Butler's sense, an anti-racist identity is constituted by actions such as protesting, legislating, and doing the hard work to eradicate racism. However, the common conception of a performative identity might have to do with simply sharing an anti-racist meme, which does not necessarily indicate any behavior or action that backs up the idea that someone is genuinely anti-racist.

We already explored some examples of pejoration and amelioration in Chapter 9: Language, Culture, and Society.

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