Chapter 12

Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology that focuses on the study of contemporary human cultures and societies. It seeks to understand the diversity of human cultures, their customs, beliefs, practices, social organization, and material traits. Cultural anthropologists often conduct fieldwork, immersing themselves in a particular culture to observe, interview, and participate in the daily lives of the people they study.

History of Cultural Anthropology

Early Origins and Explorations

Before the emergence of modern cultural anthropology, there were historical figures whose travels and writings paved the way for understanding and studying cultures around the world. Figures like Herodotus, Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, and Isabella Bird embarked on journeys that spanned continents, documenting the customs, societies, and landscapes they encountered. Their explorations, though driven by different motivations and contexts, laid a foundation for cultural understanding and appreciation that continues to influence anthropological thought today.

Herodotus, known as the "Father of History," was a Greek historian born in Halicarnassus (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) around 484 BCE (Herodotus et al., 2013). He embarked on several travels, notably between 460 and 450 BCE, during which he made significant observations about various cultures. In Egypt, he studied the culture, geography, history, and customs, including the pyramids and the annual flooding of the Nile. In Babylon and Persia, he documented aspects of society, governance, religion, and the renowned hanging gardens. His travels also took him to Scythia, where he studied the customs and lifestyles of the people in what is now modern Ukraine and southern Russia. Herodotus' works laid the foundation for the field of historical inquiry, and his detailed accounts of these societies provide valuable insights into the ancient world.

Marco Polo, a Venetian explorer born in 1254, embarked on a journey to the East from 1271 to 1295 (Polo, 2004). He served under Kublai Khan and made numerous observations about Asian cultures. In China, he marveled at the grandeur of the Chinese imperial court and noted the use of paper money, a concept unfamiliar in Europe at the time. He was fascinated by the opulence and vibrant trade in cities like Hangzhou. Polo also spent time among the Mongols, experiencing their pastoral life and gaining insights into the court of Kublai Khan. Upon his return to Venice, he was imprisoned during the Venetian-Genoese War, during which he dictated his experiences and observations, later compiled into the famous book "The Travels of Marco Polo." His writings became a key source of information about Asia for Europeans during the Middle Ages and significantly influenced later explorers and geographers.

Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan explorer born in 1304, embarked on a remarkable journey that spanned over 75,000 miles from 1325 to 1354 (Ibn Battuta & Mackintosh-Smith, 2002). His travels began with the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca but extended far beyond, taking him to diverse lands and cultures. Throughout his journey, he held official roles in various localities, which provided him with unique insights into the societies he encountered. In India, he documented customs, Hindu temples, and festivals, offering a vivid portrayal of the country's cultural richness. In Africa, he marveled at Mali's wealth, its gold production, and the significant role of griots, who were the oral historians of the region. In China, he observed the architectural marvels of the Yuan Dynasty, the rigorous examination system, and the use of paper currency, which were all unfamiliar to him. In Persia, he detailed the Persian language, customs, and the beauty of Persian gardens, showcasing his appreciation for the aesthetics of the region. Ibn Battuta's travels and observations were later compiled into the renowned travelogue "Rihla," or "The Journey," which remains a valuable historical document detailing the medieval world.

Isabella Bird, an English explorer born in 1831, embarked on extensive travels that took her across the globe (Barr, 1970). From 1854 to 1873, she explored North America, where she immersed herself in the culture of Hawaii, experiencing hula dancing and local customs. In Colorado, she encountered the rugged lifestyle of the "Pioneers," which left a lasting impression on her. Her adventures continued in Asia from 1878 to 1880, where she delved into the intricacies of Japanese culture, particularly noting aspects of gender roles and tea ceremonies. In China, she studied the lives of Hakka villagers in Fujian Province, gaining insights into their unique way of life. Bird's explorations extended to the Middle East from 1897 to 1898, where she explored the religious practices and festivals of India, the cuisine and clothing of Persia (Iran), and the monastic traditions and stunning landscapes of Tibet. Her writings about her travels not only provide valuable historical insights but also reflect her deep curiosity and appreciation for the diverse cultures she encountered.

Birth of Modern Cultural Anthropology

Modern anthropology emerged in the 19th century, focusing on systematic studies of human societies and cultures. Pioneers like Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, and Margaret Mead emphasized culture's role through symbols and meanings. Their work highlighted cultural diversity and complexity. Together, they laid the foundation for modern anthropology, stressing cultural relativism, fieldwork, and contextual understanding of human societies.

Franz Boas (1858-1942), often regarded as the father of American anthropology, made significant contributions to the field, particularly in his critique of racial determinism. In his 1912 book "Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants," Boas demonstrated how environmental factors influenced human physical traits, challenging prevailing notions of racial hierarchy. Despite his groundbreaking work, many at the time ignored his findings, preferring to maintain racist beliefs. Boas emphasized the importance of fieldwork, cultural relativism, and detailed ethnographic research, laying the foundation for modern anthropological methods and perspectives.

Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942), a Polish anthropologist, is known for his pioneering work in the field of anthropology. He is associated with the structural-functional theoretical perspective, which emphasizes the ways in which cultural institutions function to maintain social order. Malinowski was also a proponent of cultural relativism, the idea that cultures should be understood on their own terms rather than judged by the standards of another culture. He is particularly renowned for his development of participant observation as a research method, which involved immersing oneself in the culture being studied to gain a deep understanding of its practices and beliefs. Malinowski's emphasis on ethnographic fieldwork and his efforts to institutionalize anthropology in academia have had a lasting impact on the field, shaping the way anthropologists conduct research and interpret cultural phenomena.

Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) was a pioneering anthropologist known for challenging cultural determinism, the idea that culture determines human behavior. She emphasized the role of individuals in shaping their cultural practices. Benedict's work focused on the intersection of culture and personality, exploring how cultural norms and values influence individual behavior and identity. She conducted cross-cultural comparisons to understand the diversity of human cultures and the universal aspects of human nature. Benedict's insights into the dynamic relationship between culture and individuals have had a profound impact on the field of anthropology, influencing subsequent research on cultural diversity and human behavior.

Margaret Mead (1901-1978), a student of Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict, was a groundbreaking anthropologist who challenged the notion of gendered determinism. Her research, particularly her work "Coming of Age in Samoa" (1928), challenged the prevailing Western beliefs about the universality of adolescence and gender roles. Mead's study suggested that cultural factors, rather than biological ones, significantly influence behavior and development. This research sparked debates about the nature-nurture controversy and contributed to the understanding of how culture shapes human behavior and identity. Mead's work continues to be influential in the fields of anthropology, sociology, and gender studies.

Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) was a prominent figure in symbolic anthropology, emphasizing the importance of understanding culture through its symbols and meanings. He introduced the concept of thick description, which involves providing a detailed, contextualized account of social behavior to capture its full meaning. Geertz (1973) argued that context matters greatly in interpreting cultural practices, and that understanding the meaning behind these practices is crucial for understanding a society. He highlighted the complexity and intricacy of cultural systems, emphasizing the need for anthropologists to engage deeply with the cultures they study to uncover these meanings. Geertz's work has had a lasting impact on anthropology, influencing how researchers approach the study of culture and society.

Influence of Post-Colonialism and Decolonization on the Discipline

The influence of post-colonialism and decolonization on the discipline of anthropology has been significant. Scholars like Edward Said, Trinh T. Minh-ha, Homi K. Bhabha, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak have challenged traditional, often Eurocentric perspectives within anthropology. Their critiques have prompted scholars to reevaluate their approaches to studying and representing non-Western cultures, leading to a more inclusive and culturally sensitive discipline.

Edward Said (1935-2003), a Palestinian-American intellectual, was critical of cultural anthropology for its complicity in colonialism. In his seminal work "Orientalism," Said (1978) argued that Western scholars often stereotyped and generalized about non-Western cultures, treating them as exotic, inferior, or exoticized. He criticized anthropologists for perpetuating these stereotypes and for their role in justifying and maintaining colonial power dynamics. Said's critique has had a profound impact on the field of anthropology, prompting scholars to reevaluate their approaches to studying and representing non-Western cultures.

Trinh T. Minh-ha (1952- ), a Vietnamese intellectual, is known for her critical stance against traditional, often male-dominated, and Eurocentric anthropological perspectives. In her work, "Woman, Native, Other," Trinh (1989) refers to Malinowski as the "Great Master," challenging the authority and biases of foundational figures in anthropology. Trinh's films are characterized by a lack of narration, profound use of silence, and reliance on the sounds of daily life, challenging conventional modes of storytelling and representation. Her work has been influential in pushing the boundaries of anthropological discourse and representation, emphasizing the importance of diverse voices and perspectives.

Homi K. Bhabha (1949- ) is a prominent postcolonial anthropologist known for his work on cultural and literary theory. His influential book "The Location of Culture" (1994) examines the concepts of hybridity and mimicry in postcolonial contexts, challenging traditional notions of identity and representation. Bhabha's work has been instrumental in reshaping discussions on colonialism, nationalism, and globalization.

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942- ) is another well-known postcolonial anthropologist, known for her work on literary theory, feminism, and postcolonial studies. Her book "A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present" (1999) is a significant contribution to postcolonial theory, challenging Eurocentric perspectives and advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices in academic discourse. Spivak's work has been influential in expanding the scope of postcolonial studies and advocating for social justice and equality.

Ethical Considerations in Cultural Anthropology

Just as in biological anthropology and linguistics, there have been instances of questionable ethical practices within cultural anthropology.

Responses to Cultural Diversity

Responses to cultural diversity encompass a range of reactions and approaches that individuals and societies adopt when encountering cultures different from their own. Culture shock refers to the feelings of disorientation and discomfort experienced when exposed to a new culture, highlighting the challenges of adapting to unfamiliar customs, norms, and values. Ethnocentrism, on the other hand, is the tendency to view one's own culture as superior to others, often leading to judgments and stereotypes about other cultures. Anthropologists should strive to avoid culture shock and ethnocentrism by adopting cultural relativism, which is the practice of understanding a culture on its own terms, without imposing one's own cultural values. Cultural relativism encourages an open-minded approach to cultural differences, recognizing that each culture has its own unique context and meaning.

In contrast to ethnocentrism, multiculturalism emphasizes the coexistence and appreciation of different cultures within a society. Multiculturalism advocates for the recognition of cultural diversity and the promotion of equal rights and opportunities for individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Anthropologists should embrace multiculturalism as a positive response to cultural diversity, promoting understanding, respect, and dialogue among diverse groups. Overall, cultural relativism and multiculturalism are approaches that anthropologists should use to navigate cultural diversity, while culture shock and ethnocentrism should be avoided due to their potential for bias and misunderstanding.

Ethical Lapses in Cultural Anthropology

Furthermore, anthropologists need to ensure informed consent and  recognize the power differences between themselves and their research subjects.

Napoleon Chagnon's research with the Amazonian Yanomami has been the subject of significant criticism, particularly regarding ethical concerns and the impact of his work on the Yanomami people. Tierney (2000) extensively criticized Chagnon's methods and interactions with the Yanomami. Tierney alleged that Chagnon's research practices exploited the vulnerability of the Yanomami, neglected their well-being, and exacerbated tensions among different factions by providing them with steel tools and weapons in exchange for research data. These actions are said to have contributed to increased violence and conflict within Yanomami communities.

Leach (1975) created the documentary "Trobriand Cricket" to showcase the unique adaptation of cricket by the Trobriand Islanders over 70 years, demonstrating how they integrated this missionary-introduced sport into their society as a new ritual to soften the impact of colonialism. However, the film has faced criticism for various shortcomings (Weiner, 1977). It failed to ensure informed consent, as the Trobriand Islanders were not adequately informed about the film's content, purpose, and potential consequences. Additionally, the documentary framed the cricket match as a response to colonialism without providing sufficient context or explanation, perpetuating colonial stereotypes about indigenous peoples. Moreover, it lacked context by not explaining the meaning of cricket in the Trobriand context and its relationship to their unique cultural practices.

Slideshow 🖼️