Chapter 18

This chapter explores the fundamental aspects of archaeological fieldwork, which encompasses the practical activities involved in locating, documenting, and excavating archaeological sites. It includes finding sites through ground surveys and remote sensing technologies, conducting excavations using various methods and tools, and cataloging finds for further study and preservation.

Finding Sites

Ground Surveys

Ground surveys refer to on-the-ground exploration and examination of an area for archaeological purposes.

Reconnaissance walking, a method used in archaeological fieldwork, involves an initial survey of an area to locate potential sites by visually inspecting the surface for signs of archaeological features or artifacts. However, this approach can be challenging as it may inadvertently cause damage, especially in sensitive environments like Southeast Utah, where the soil contains a living biological crust consisting of cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, and mosses. These organisms are crucial to the ecosystem, and disturbing them can have lasting effects. Therefore, archaeologists must exercise caution and minimize their impact when conducting reconnaissance walking in sensitive areas.

Line walking, a systematic survey method in archaeological fieldwork, involves drawing lines across a site, typically 20 meters apart and numbered for identification. These lines, called transects, are further divided into stints, usually 25 or 50 meters apart and designated by letters. As archaeologists walk along these transects, they systematically scan the ground for artifacts or features, looking one meter on each side of the line for any significant finds. When they encounter something important, they collect it, noting the transect and stint. This method allows for the sampling of approximately 10% of the site, as each transect covers 2 meters when spaced 20 meters apart. However, line walking can be challenging, as it requires careful attention to avoid missing important artifacts or causing damage to the site (Mann & Sanderson, 2009).

Grid walking is another systematic survey method used in archaeological fieldwork, typically employed after reconnaissance and line walking to cover the entire site. This method involves dividing the site into a grid of squares, with each square representing a specific area for investigation. The size of the grid squares can vary depending on the site and research goals, but they are typically around 5x5 meters or 10 x 10 meters. Archaeologists walk along the grid lines, systematically scanning each square for artifacts or features. When they find something significant, they collect it, noting the grid square where it was found. Grid walking allows for a more detailed examination of the site, ensuring that no area is overlooked. However, like other survey methods, it requires careful attention to avoid missing important artifacts or causing damage to the site.

Remote Sensing Technologies

Remote sensing technologies involve using instruments to gather information about a site from a distance, such as aerial photography or satellite imagery.

Excavation

Excavation Frameworks

Archaeology is grounded in a multi-level interdisciplinary system encompassing various principles, laws, and interpretations (Watson, 1976).

1. The Principle of Original Horizontality states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally due to gravity. This principle is crucial in stratigraphy, the study of rock layers (strata), as it helps archaeologists understand the original orientation of deposits and the relative ages of different layers.

   • Simply put: things settle in layers flat.

2. The Principle of Superposition states that in any undisturbed sequence of strata, the youngest layer is on top, and the oldest is at the bottom. This principle allows archaeologists to determine the relative ages of different layers and artifacts within a site, helping to establish a chronological framework for interpreting the site's history.

   • Simply put: the lower layers are older.

3. The Law of Association states that artifacts found in the same stratigraphic layer are likely to be roughly the same age and associated with the activities or contexts of that time.

   • Simply put: things found in the same layer are probably related to each other.

Context refers to the relationship between artifacts, features, and the surrounding environment within a site. It encompasses the spatial and temporal associations of artifacts and features, providing crucial information about the activities, behaviors, and chronology of past human societies. Archaeologists analyze context to interpret the significance of artifacts and features within a site, helping to reconstruct past lifeways and understand cultural changes over time.

Let's shift from the laws of stratigraphy to a geometric principle. According to the Pythagorean Theorem, the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. The Pythagorean Theorem is relevant in excavation for calculating distances and ensuring the accuracy of measurements, allowing archaeologists to create precise grids with parallel and perpendicular grid lines.

Excavation Methods

Excavation methods are the techniques used by archaeologists to carefully uncover and recover archaeological remains from a site.

Vertical excavation involves digging a deep, vertical shaft to expose the stratigraphy of a site. This method is useful for revealing the chronological sequence of deposits and features in a concentrated area. Step trenches are a form of vertical excavation. In this method, archaeologists dig a series of trenches, each progressively deeper than the last, to reveal the layers of deposits and features below the surface. At Ziyaret Tepe, an archaeological site in southeastern Turkey, step trenches are employed to uncover the site's stratigraphy, providing insights into its historical development and the activities that took place there (Matney et al., 2003).

Horizontal excavation, on the other hand, involves digging horizontally across a site to expose a large area at a single level. This method is useful for uncovering extensive remains, such as floors, walls, and other features, and provides a broad overview of the site's layout. Wexpusnime village, located near the Snake River in Eastern Washington State, was a significant archaeological site where a variety of artifacts, including stone tools, bone tools, antler tools, organics, and ceramics, were discovered through horizontal excavation (Nakonechny, 1998). The site is now submerged underwater due to the construction of the Lower Granite Dam on the Snake River.

The Wheeler-Kenyon Box Grid Method is a systematic approach to excavation that involves dividing a site into a grid of squares (Callaway, 1979). Each square is excavated individually, and the soil from each square is carefully screened and recorded. This method allows archaeologists to excavate a site in a controlled and methodical manner, ensuring that all artifacts and features are properly documented and preserved.

Cofferdams are structures built to create a dry work environment below the waterline for archaeological excavations. At La Belle, a seventeenth-century vessel excavated in Texas, a cofferdam was utilized to facilitate the excavation process. Excavation inside the cofferdam allowed archaeologists to meticulously uncover and document the vessel's remains, including its hull and associated artifacts. This method provided a unique opportunity to study the shipwreck in detail, revealing valuable insights into seventeenth-century maritime technology and trade (Hendrick & Mitchell-Cook, 2016).

Backfilling is a critical step in archaeological excavation that involves refilling the excavated area once the archaeological work is complete. This process is essential for preserving the site and protecting it from erosion, vandalism, or other damage. Archaeologists carefully backfill the site using the same soil or material that was removed during excavation, layer by layer, to ensure that the original stratigraphy is maintained. Backfilling also helps to stabilize the site and prevent the collapse of surrounding soil layers. Proper backfilling is crucial for the long-term preservation of archaeological sites, ensuring that they remain intact for future study and research.

Excavation Tools

Excavation tools are essential for the careful uncovering and cleaning of archaeological finds. A shovel is used for moving and lifting soil quickly, while a pickaxe is ideal for breaking up compacted or rocky soil. Trowels are crucial for precise excavation and cleaning, while brushes—both large and small—are used for removing loose soil and debris, as well as for gentle cleaning and detailing. Magnifying glasses are employed for close examination of small artifacts or details, and compasses help in determining orientation and mapping within a site. Each tool serves a specific purpose, contributing to the meticulous process of archaeological excavation.

Cataloging

As artifacts are discovered and removed from their original context, it is crucial to catalog them meticulously (Sullivan & Childs, 2003).

In the field (at the archaeological site), archaeologists use a field catalog to record detailed information about each artifact or feature as it is uncovered. This catalog includes a description of the item, its location within the site, the depth at which it was found, and any associated notes or observations. Identifying and labeling artifacts in situ, or in their original position, is essential for maintaining the context of the artifacts and understanding their relationship to the surrounding environment. The field catalog is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the excavation process, ensuring that all artifacts are properly documented and can be accurately analyzed and interpreted later.

Once artifacts are removed from the site, they are transferred to a permanent catalog for further study and curation. The permanent catalog includes more detailed information about each artifact, such as its measurements, materials, and any relevant historical or cultural context. This catalog serves as a comprehensive record of the excavated artifacts, providing a valuable resource for future research and preservation efforts. Each artifact is assigned an accession number, a unique identification code used to organize and track the artifacts within the catalog. This system ensures that each artifact can be easily located and referenced for research purposes.

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