Chapter 15

Ritual

A ritual is a symbolic action or set of actions performed in a prescribed manner, often with deep cultural or religious significance. Rituals can be formal or informal, ranging from everyday practices like greeting rituals to complex ceremonies like religious rites or initiation rituals. They play a crucial role in shaping social bonds, conveying cultural values, and marking important transitions or events in human life.

Kinship-Related Rituals

In Chapter 14, we broadly explored kinship. Now, let's examine some kinship-based rituals. One of the first rituals we encounter is a birthing ritual that celebrates the arrival of a new member into the community. It often involves ceremonies, prayers, and the bestowing of a name that carries cultural and familial significance. For example, among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, naming ceremonies, known as "Isomoloruko," are elaborate events where the child is officially named and blessed by elders (Rasak, 2010).

Another significant ritual is genital cutting.

• Vaginal/Clitoral Mutilation: Also known as female genital mutilation (FGM) or female circumcision, this ritual involves the partial removal of the clitoris and other external genitalia. It is practiced in some cultures as a rite of passage into womanhood. However, it is important to note that this practice is widely condemned for its harmful effects on women's health and well-being (Shell-Duncan & Hernlund, 2000).

• Penis Foreskin Circumcision: This ritual involves the removal of the foreskin of the penis and is practiced in many cultures and religions around the world. It can symbolize purity, identity, or initiation into manhood. For example, in Judaism, male circumcision, known as "Brit Milah," is a significant ritual performed on male infants as a covenant with God. While some critics argue that it is a form of unnecessary genital alteration, it is important to note that foreskin circumcision is not widely condemned and is considered a normative practice in many societies for cultural, religious, and health reasons (Goldman, 1997).

A coming-of-age ritual is one in which a young individual transitions from childhood to adulthood, often marked by significant ceremonies and celebrations. In Latin American cultures, a notable example of this is the quinceañera, a traditional celebration for girls turning 15.  The quinceañera is a festive event that typically includes a religious ceremony, a formal reception, and symbolic gestures highlighting the young woman's maturity and readiness for adult responsibilities. Community members often sponsor items such as the honoree's earrings, shoes, and other accessories, which not only contribute to the celebration but also help foster a sense of community and support (Cantú, 1999).

Marriage rituals vary widely but all signify the union of two individuals and their families. These rituals often include ceremonies, vows, and symbolic gestures, such as the exchange of rings. For example, in Hindu weddings, the "Saptapadi" or seven steps taken together around a sacred fire symbolize the couple's journey through life together (Patyal, 1976).

Lastly, death and burial rituals vary greatly across cultures but often involve ceremonies, prayers, and rituals to honor the deceased and guide their spirit to the afterlife. For instance, in Tibetan Buddhist traditions, "Sky Burials" involve placing the deceased on a mountaintop to be exposed to the elements and consumed by birds, seen as a way to return the body to the cycle of life (Martin, 1996).

Religion

Studying Religion

Religion is a complex and multifaceted cultural phenomenon involving beliefs, practices, and rituals that often revolve around the divine, spiritual, or transcendent. Defining religion in a concise manner is challenging due to its diverse manifestations across different cultures and historical contexts. Scholars debate whether religion should be defined in terms of beliefs, rituals, ethical teachings, or a combination. Some argue that defining religion is limiting, as it may overlook non-traditional or marginalized expressions, advocating for a broad, inclusive approach to studying religion that recognizes its diversity.

One of the key methods used in the study of religion is the comparative method, which involves comparing and contrasting different religious traditions to identify similarities, differences, and patterns of belief and practice. This approach allows scholars to gain insights into the universal aspects of religion as well as the unique features of specific traditions. The comparative method can help researchers understand how religious beliefs and practices are shaped by cultural, historical, and social factors.

In the study of religion, the ethnographic method is often used to gain a deep understanding of religious beliefs and practices within a specific cultural context. Ethnographic research involves immersing oneself in the culture being studied, often through fieldwork and participant observation. This approach allows researchers to observe religious rituals and ceremonies firsthand, interview practitioners, and gain insight into the meaning and significance of religious beliefs and practices in the lives of individuals and communities.

A holistic approach is central to the ethnographic method in the study of religion. Holism refers to the idea that religious beliefs and practices are interconnected with other aspects of culture, society, and individual experience. By adopting a holistic perspective, scholars aim to understand how religion intersects with various aspects of human life, including politics, economics, kinship, and identity. This approach recognizes that religion is not a separate or isolated phenomenon but is intertwined with broader social, cultural, and historical contexts.

Misunderstood Terms

Cults

A cult, often referred to as a new religious movement (NRM), is a religious or spiritual group that has emerged relatively recently and is often characterized by novel or unorthodox beliefs and practices. Cults may be seen as deviating from mainstream religious traditions and may face scrutiny or controversy. It's important to note that the term "cult" can carry negative connotations and is sometimes used pejoratively. It's also worth noting that all religions were, at some point in their history, new religious movements or cults, as they emerged and developed their beliefs, practices, and followers over time.

Myths

Colloquially, the term "myth" is often used to describe a story that is untrue or fabricated. However, in the field of anthropology and religious studies, the term is used in a different context. In this context, a myth is a traditional narrative that is considered sacred or culturally significant within a particular society. Myths may not be literally true in a historical or scientific sense, but they are seen as conveying important truths or insights about the nature of the world, human existence, and the divine. Anthropologists study myths to understand the cultural beliefs, values, and practices of a society and how these are transmitted and maintained over time.

Perspectives on Supernaturalism

Supernaturalism is a belief system that posits the existence of supernatural forces, entities, or phenomena that transcend the natural world. These can include ghosts, spirits, gods, energies, and so on.

Animism is a belief system that attributes spiritual or supernatural qualities to natural phenomena, such as plants, animals, rocks, rivers, and other elements of the natural world. Animistic beliefs often involve the idea that these natural entities possess souls, spirits, or consciousness and can interact with humans and influence events in the world.

Cosmology refers to the beliefs and myths that a culture or religious tradition holds about the origin, structure, and nature of the universe. The Maya of Central America have a creation myth involving spiritual beings creating the humans first out of mud, then wood, then (finally) corn dough. The Hopi people of North America have a creation myth involving the Spider Grandmother who weaves the world into existence. In Boshongo mythology (of Central Africa), the universe is created by the god Bumba vomiting the sun, moon, and stars, followed by various animals and eventually humans.

Totemism is a belief system in which humans are believed to have a spiritual connection or kinship with a specific animal, plant, or natural object, known as a totem. Totemism is often associated with indigenous cultures and is characterized by rituals, ceremonies, and taboos related to the totem. The totem is believed to embody or represent a particular group of people, such as a family, clan, or tribe, and is often used as a symbol of unity, identity, and protection. Totemism is also linked to the idea of a totemic ancestor, a mythical being or figure from which the group is believed to descend.

Ancestor veneration is a religious or cultural practice that involves honoring and revering deceased ancestors. This practice is common in many societies around the world and is based on the belief that the spirits of the dead continue to exist and can influence the lives of the living. Ancestor veneration may involve rituals, ceremonies, offerings, and prayers aimed at showing respect and gratitude to ancestors, seeking their guidance and protection, and maintaining a connection with them across generations. Ancestor veneration is often seen as a way to ensure the well-being and prosperity of the living and to uphold family or community bonds.

Theisms

Theism is the belief in the existence of one or more gods or divine beings. It is a central concept in many religions where gods are believed to be actively involved in the world and in human affairs. There are various ways to think about theism.

Nontheism is a broad category that includes any belief system or philosophical position that does not affirm the existence of gods or other deities. Examples of nontheistic religions include Buddhism and Jainism, which focus more on spiritual enlightenment, ethical living, and the nature of existence rather than worship of gods.

Atheism is the lack of belief in the existence of gods or deities. Atheists can be divided into non-religious and religious atheists. Generally, atheists do not adhere to any religious doctrine or practice. Religious atheists, however, may be members of organized religions or follow spiritual practices that do not involve belief in gods, such as the Satanic Temple. The Satanic Temple is a nontheistic religion whose members are atheists and thus do not believe in any supernatural beings (including Satan).

Polytheism is a religious belief system that acknowledges and worships multiple gods or deities. In polytheistic traditions, these gods often have distinct personalities, roles, and domains of influence. Examples of polytheistic religions include ancient Greek religion, which worshiped gods like Zeus, Hera, and Athena; ancient Egyptian religion, which revered deities like Ra, Isis, and Osiris; and Hinduism, which recognizes a vast pantheon of gods and goddesses, including Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga.

The Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, emerged from a polytheistic oral tradition. Oral tradition refers to the transmission of cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices through spoken stories, songs, and rituals, rather than through written texts. In the polytheistic oral traditions that preceded the Abrahamic religions, various deities were worshiped, often associated with natural forces, celestial bodies, or aspects of human life. In the case of the early Israelites, the chief deity was Yahweh, who later became the central figure in Judaism. Other deities associated with this tradition include:

• El: A chief god in the Canaanite and early Israelite pantheon, often associated with creation and fertility.

• Baal: A Canaanite god of storms, fertility, and agriculture, often portrayed in conflict with Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible.

• Asherah: A goddess of fertility and motherhood, sometimes depicted as the consort of El or Yahweh in ancient Near Eastern religions.

These deities were part of a complex pantheon that reflected the polytheistic beliefs of the ancient Israelites and other peoples in the region before the development of monotheistic Judaism.

Monotheism is a religious belief system that asserts the existence of only one god or deity. In monotheistic religions, this single god is typically viewed as the creator and ruler of the universe, possessing supreme moral and spiritual authority. The Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—are considered monotheistic, with each tradition emphasizing the worship of a single, all-powerful god.

Monotheism in the Abrahamic religions developed gradually, evolving from earlier polytheistic traditions. As these religions transitioned from an oral to a written tradition—where religious texts, teachings, and beliefs were recorded in written form—their beliefs about the nature of God became more formalized and exclusive. For example, in Judaism, the concept of monotheism was solidified with the development of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and the declaration of the Shema, a central prayer affirming the oneness of God. In Christianity, monotheism was central to the teachings of Jesus and the early church, as expressed in the New Testament. In Islam, monotheism is a foundational belief, with the Quran emphasizing the oneness of God (Allah) and rejecting any form of polytheism.

Ritual Practices and their Functions

As already discussed, rituals are structured, repetitive actions or behaviors that hold symbolic meaning and are often performed in a specific sequence or manner. Religious rituals can be classified into various types, including rites of passage, worship rituals, and healing rituals, each serving different purposes within a cultural or religious context. Rituals play a crucial role in identity formation and social cohesion, as they reinforce shared values, beliefs, and norms within a community.

Pilgrimage is a type of ritual journey to a sacred or significant place that holds spiritual or cultural significance. Pilgrimages often involve a physical and spiritual transformation for the pilgrim, reinforcing their religious identity and strengthening their connection to their faith community.

Rites of passage are rituals that mark significant transitions in an individual's life, such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death. These rituals often involve symbolic actions or ceremonies that help individuals navigate these transitions and integrate into new social roles within their community.

Symbols are an integral part of ritual practices, serving as visual or auditory representations of abstract ideas, beliefs, or emotions. Symbols can include objects, gestures, words, or images that hold deep meaning within a cultural or religious context, helping to convey and reinforce shared beliefs and values.

Religion, Power, and Social Control

The relationship between religion and social hierarchies is complex, often reflecting and reinforcing existing power dynamics within a society. Religious beliefs and practices can be used to justify and maintain social inequalities, legitimizing the authority of rulers and justifying the subordination of certain groups based on gender, class, or ethnicity.

Religious authority plays a crucial role in social control, as religious leaders often hold significant influence over their followers' beliefs and behaviors. Religious leaders, such as priests, pastors, or imams, are tasked with interpreting religious texts, guiding spiritual practices, and enforcing moral codes within their communities. This authority can be used to promote social cohesion and conformity to societal norms, but it can also be wielded to suppress dissent and maintain the status quo.

Religion intersects with gender and sexuality in complex ways, often reflecting and perpetuating societal norms and expectations regarding gender roles and sexual behavior. Many religious traditions have specific teachings and practices related to gender and sexuality, which can impact individuals' lived experiences and social identities. These teachings can be used to justify gender and sexuality-based discrimination or restrictions on gender and sexual expression, but they can also provide a sense of identity, community, and moral guidance for individuals within a religious context.

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Expressive Culture

Expressive culture encompasses a wide range of creative and artistic practices that convey meaning, values, and emotions within a cultural context. This includes various forms of art, music, dance, literature, theater, and other forms of creative expression. Expressive culture is integral to human societies, serving as a means of communication, social cohesion, and identity formation. It reflects the beliefs, values, and experiences of a culture and often plays a role in rituals, ceremonies, and everyday life. Through expressive culture, individuals and communities can express their unique perspectives, histories, and worldviews, contributing to the richness and diversity of human culture.

Role and Meaning in Art

Art plays a significant role in expressing and communicating cultural ideas, values, and beliefs. One of the key aspects of art is its ability to use symbolic representation to convey complex meanings and emotions. Cultural artifacts, such as paintings, sculptures, music, and dance, often use symbols that hold specific meanings within a cultural context. These symbols can represent ideas, stories, or spiritual beliefs that are important to a particular culture, providing a visual or auditory language through which cultural values and identities can be expressed.

The interpretation of artistic symbols is deeply rooted in cultural contexts and can vary widely across different societies. What may be seen as a symbol of fertility or abundance in one culture may hold a completely different meaning in another. Understanding the cultural interpretations of artistic symbols is essential for appreciating the depth and complexity of art and its role in shaping cultural identity and values.

Artistic traditions are closely tied to cultural identity, serving as a reflection of a society's history, values, and worldview. Many artistic traditions are passed down through generations, serving as a link to the past and a way to preserve cultural heritage. These traditions help to define and reinforce cultural identity, providing a sense of continuity and belonging for individuals within a cultural group.

Art also serves as a powerful medium for cultural communication and social commentary. Artists often use their work to comment on social issues, challenge prevailing norms, or express dissent. Art can be a tool for sparking dialogue and debate within a society, challenging people to think critically about their beliefs and values. In this way, art plays a crucial role in shaping and reflecting social change and cultural evolution.

Performance

The distinction between cultural performance and performing culture lies in the focus and interpretation of expressive culture. Cultural performance refers to specific events or activities that are intentionally performed for an audience, such as rituals, ceremonies, theater, or musical performances. These performances are often highly structured and may involve symbolic actions, costumes, and scripts that convey cultural meanings and values. Cultural performances are often seen as distinct from everyday life and are recognized as special or significant within a cultural context.

On the other hand, performing culture involves the everyday actions, behaviors, and interactions through which culture is expressed and enacted. This concept draws on the idea that culture is not just something people have but something they do, through their daily practices and social interactions. Performing culture involves analyzing these everyday actions as performances that convey cultural meanings and values, similar to how a theatrical performance conveys meaning to an audience (Schechner, 2011).

Erving Goffman's (1959) concept of the "presentation of self" provides a framework for understanding how individuals perform culture in their daily lives. Goffman argued that individuals engage in impression management, using various strategies to present themselves to others in ways that are consistent with cultural norms and expectations. This can include the use of language, gestures, clothing, and other symbolic cues to convey information about one's identity, social status, and cultural affiliation. In this way, the everyday actions of individuals can be seen as performances that reflect and reinforce cultural values and beliefs.

Traditional Art

Art exists in many traditional forms, including sculpture, paint, pottery, textiles, architecture, and dance.

Paint

Paint is another form of expressive culture.

Textiles

Textiles are a significant form of expressive art, often reflecting cultural identities, beliefs, and histories through their patterns, colors, and designs. The keffiyeh, a traditional Middle Eastern headdress, provides a compelling example of how textiles can convey deep cultural meanings. The keffiyeh's distinctive checkered pattern has been used for centuries across the Arab world and has become a symbol of Palestinian nationalism and solidarity. The black and white keffiyeh, in particular, became widely associated with the Palestinian struggle for independence, worn by activists and leaders as a symbol of resistance. In this way, textiles like the keffiyeh serve as powerful expressions of cultural identity and resistance, highlighting the role of textiles as a form of artistic expression that transcends mere functionality.

Contemporary Art

Contemporary art is a diverse and dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of artistic practices and expressions created by artists living and working in the present era. Unlike traditional art forms, contemporary art often pushes boundaries, challenges conventions, and reflects the complex and rapidly changing nature of contemporary society. It includes a variety of mediums such as painting, sculpture, installation, performance, video, and digital art, among others. Contemporary artists often explore a wide range of themes, including identity, politics, social issues, technology, and the environment, using their work to provoke thought, stimulate discussion, and evoke emotional responses. Contemporary art is characterized by its openness to experimentation, innovation, and new ideas, reflecting the diverse and multifaceted nature of the world we live in today.