Chapter 6

Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is the scientific study of human skeletal remains in the context of legal investigations. This chapter explores the human skeletal anatomy, methods used by forensic anthropologists, and examples of work related to criminal and human rights investigations, as well as mass disasters. Forensic anthropologists work to understand the causes of death, collection of remains, and identification of remains.

Biological Profile

A biological profile is the set of characteristics derived from the analysis of skeletal remains. The human skeletal system comprises distinct bones and skeletal elements, each serving specific functions. Forensic anthropologists employ systematic methods to identify and classify these elements, allowing for accurate analysis during investigations.

Demographic Characteristics

Infants are born with approximately 270 bones, but as they grow, some fuse together, resulting in an adult human skeleton of around 206 bones. This process, known as ossification, involves the gradual hardening and fusion of bones over time. Understanding these developmental changes is crucial in forensic anthropology for accurately estimating the age of individuals based on their skeletal remains. The degeneration of bones also reveals one's age.

Forensic anthropologists can often determine the sex assigned at birth of a person based on the examination of sexually dimorphic features present in the skeleton, such as the pelvis and skull. Sexually dimorphic features are those characteristics that differ between those assigned female and male at birth.

Stature, or height, estimation is a crucial aspect of forensic anthropology. By analyzing long bones such as the femur, tibia, and humerus, forensic anthropologists can provide estimates of an individual's height, contributing valuable information to the investigative process.

Since race is not a biological category, forensic anthropologists cannot determine race from genes or skeletal remains. However, through various methods, forensic anthropologists can determine one's ancestry or affinity group (Flouri et al., 2022). From that, we can infer phenotypic traits such as skin color.

Femur

Trauma Analysis

When constructing biological profiles, forensic anthropologists also check for signs of trauma. There are a few types of trauma analysis:

Fracture Analysis: Forensic anthropologists carefully examine fractures to determine their type (e.g., linear, oblique, spiral) and assess whether they occurred before or after death. Perimortem fractures that happened around the time of death may suggest foul play.
Blunt Force Trauma: Blunt force trauma is identified by examining bone surfaces for areas of impact, such as depressed fractures or bone fragments that fit together. The size and shape of these injuries can provide information about the weapon or object used.
Sharp Force Trauma: Stab wounds or cut marks on bones are indicative of sharp force trauma. The analysis may include measuring the length, depth, and angle of such wounds.
Gunshot Trauma: Gunshot wounds can leave characteristic marks on bones, including entrance and exit wounds. The size and shape of these defects can indicate the caliber of the firearm used.

Pathological Assessments

Forensic anthropologists can also conduct pathological assessments.

Arthritis: Examination for signs of joint degeneration, including erosion of joint surfaces, bone spurs, and changes in bone density.
Infections: Identification of evidence of infections, such as osteomyelitis (inflammation of bone caused by infection) or periosteal reaction (new bone growth due to infection).
Tumors: Detection of bone tumors or neoplastic growths, which may appear as abnormal bone growth or lesions on the skeleton.
Cranial Conditions: Assessment of cranial bones for conditions like craniosynostosis (premature fusion of cranial sutures) or abnormalities in cranial shape.
Metabolic Disorders: Identification of skeletal features associated with metabolic conditions such as rickets (caused by vitamin D deficiency) or osteoporosis (decreased bone density).
Traumatic Lesions: Differentiation between pathological conditions and trauma-related injuries like fractures or dislocations.
Dental Pathology: Examination of dental remains for dental caries (cavities), abscesses, tooth loss, and dental anomalies.
Anomalies: Recognition of congenital anomalies or developmental abnormalities that may be present in the skeleton.
Periosteal Reactions: Evaluation for periosteal reactions, which are changes in bone tissue in response to injury, infection, or other factors.
Musculoskeletal Diseases: Detection of musculoskeletal diseases such as myositis (muscle inflammation) or conditions affecting ligaments and tendons.
Skeletal Stress Markers: Identification of stress markers on bones, which can indicate strenuous physical activity or nutritional deficiencies.
Degenerative Conditions: Assessment for degenerative conditions like spondylosis (degeneration of the spinal column) or degenerative joint disease (osteoarthritis).
Calcified Tissues: Examination of calcified tissues, including the presence of calcified atherosclerotic plaques in blood vessels.
Metastatic Lesions: Recognition of potential metastatic cancer lesions, which may appear as abnormal bone growths.
Inflammatory Diseases: Identification of signs of inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
Skeletal Anomalies: Detection of skeletal anomalies such as exostoses (bony growths) or variations in bone structure.

Methods in Forensic Anthropology

Excavation and Recovery of Human Remains

The process of excavating and recovering human remains is a meticulous task in forensic anthropology. Forensic anthropologists work in collaboration with archaeologists and law enforcement to carefully unearth and document skeletal remains, preserving the context for a thorough analysis. Within archaeology, context refers to the precise location of each archaeological find. We will discuss context more in the archaeology section.

Laboratory Analysis Techniques

Osteology, the study of bones, is a fundamental laboratory technique in forensic anthropology. Detailed examination of skeletal elements helps identify individual bones, assess the characteristics discussed above, as well as identify any pathologies or signs of trauma.

By analyzing DNA extracted from skeletal remains, forensic anthropologists can determine the genetic profile of an individual. This genetic information can be compared to existing DNA databases or used for familial searching to potentially identify the person. In cases where the identity of the deceased is unknown, DNA analysis can help establish relationships with living relatives, aiding in the process of identification. Additionally, DNA analysis can provide insights into aspects such as ethnic origin, susceptibility to certain genetic disorders, and other biogeographical information. This information contributes significantly to legal investigations by confirming or establishing the identity of individuals and facilitating the resolution of cases involving missing persons or unidentified remains.

Isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons, resulting in variations in atomic mass. These isotopic variations, when analyzed in skeletal tissues, offer valuable information about an individual's life history, including dietary patterns, geographic origin, and aspects of their lifestyle.

The application of forensic anthropological methods is best exemplified through case studies. By presenting real-world examples, the following sections will illustrate how these methods contribute to solving legal investigations, documenting human rights abuses, and assisting during mass disasters.

Forensic Anthropology in Criminal Investigations

Forensic anthropologists assist in criminal investigations.

Louise Luetgert Murder Investigation

In the late 1890s, Adolph Luetgert, a Chicago sausage maker, murdered his wife and attempted to dispose of her body at his sausage and meat packing operation. In the trial, anthropologist George Dorsey attested that bone fragments in the vat's greasy sediment likely belonged to an adult woman, presumably Luetgert's wife. Incidentally, Dorsey was the first American to earn a Ph.D. in anthropology (Harakas, 1992).

Louise Luetgert

Green River Killer

During the 1980s and 1990s, Gary Ridgway killed dozens of young women and girls in the Seattle area. Many of these victims were caught in the vulnerable circumstances of engaging in sex work for survival and/or were runaways from home. Before he was identified, the media nicknamed him the Green River Killer after the location where his initial victims were found. Many of his victims were identified shortly after being discovered. Finally, in 2020 forensic anthropologists were able to do genetic testing on some of the remains that hadn't been identified. After compiling a forensic genealogy, or family tree, the anthropologists were able to identify her as Wendy Stephens. She was 14 years old when she ran away from home in Colorado and was killed by Gary Ridgway in Seattle in 1986 (Nystrom, 2021).

Wendy Stephens

The Body Farm

At UT's Anthropology Research Facility, commonly known as the Body Farm, investigators brought the body of a woman found dead on January 1, 1985. They recorded her fingerprints and various physical features, such as eye, hair color, and age. Her skeletal remains were part of the laboratory’s collection until she was finally identified as Tina Marie McKenney Farmer in 2018 (Schneibel, 2018).

Tina Marie McKenney Farmer

Forensic Anthropology in Human Rights Violations Investigations

Forensic anthropologists assist with investigations of human rights abuses.

Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation

In 1951, the Guatemalan people elected Jacobo Arbenz as their president after he pledged to maintain local control over Guatemala's agricultural production. The United States CIA didn't like that and orchestrated a coup d'état, in which Arbenz was ousted from power. Once Arbenz was out of power, the United States government worked to ensure that the Guatemalan government was organized in the interests of the United Fruit Company... not the local people's interests. In other words, the United States government removed a democratically elected official in order to maintain domination over Guatemala's agriculture industry (Ferreira, 2008).

What followed were four decades of civil war in which hundreds of thousands of people were killed and tens of thousands went missing. After a peace accord was finally reached in 1996, the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation was created to identify the deceased and shed light on the human rights violations that occurred during the conflict. Through exhumations, DNA collection efforts, and forensic examinations, the lab has identified almost 3,500 of Guatemala's disappeared. Yet, more than 1,500 sets of remains await identification (Strochlic, 2019).

Jacobo Arbenz

Peru's Dirty War

In the 1980s, Peruvian groups sought to overturn the capitalist system. The Peruvian government, backed by the United States, fought a violent uprising focused on class inequality. In the following decades, tens of thousands of people died. The violence involved human rights abuses, massacres, and atrocities committed by both government forces and insurgent groups, primarily the Shining Path and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement. Today, forensic anthropologists are exhuming the bodies of those killed during the Dirty War in order to identify them. So far, 2,925 sets of remains have been recovered, and 1,689 have been identified (Kirkpatrick, 2014).

Srebrenica Massacre

In 1995, 3,000 unarmed civilians were massacred by Bosnian Serbs in Srebrenica. Forensic anthropologists investigated the remains of people in order to construct biological profiles and facial reconstructions of the unknown, as well as identify signs of torture (James, 1996). Following the Bosnian War, the International Court of Justice concurred with Bosnia and Herzegovina's accusation, associating Serbia and Montenegro with the genocide of Bosnian Serbs.

Forensic Anthropology in Mass Disasters

Forensic anthropologists also assist in the aftermath of mass disasters.

2010 Haiti Earthquake

In January 2010, an earthquake struck Haiti killing over 100,000 people. Forensic anthropologists assisted in mass fatality management, including recovery, cataloging, identification, and analysis of human remains (McEntire et al., 2012).

Grenfell Tower Fire

In 2017, a fire erupted at the 24-story Grenfell Tower in London. More than 70 people died, and more than 70 more were injured. Forensic anthropologists relied on fingertip searches, DNA matching, and forensic dentistry to identify the deceased.

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 Crash

Vladimir Putin in Russia was enabling pro-Russian separatists in Ukraine during an armed conflict when Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 crashed over Ukraine, likely being shot down by Russia. Forensic anthropologists collected the remains, x-rayed them, and worked to identify them (Vermeij et al., 2022).

Slideshow 🖼️

ant-101-06 - forensic anthropology - slides

Worksheet and Study Guide

The Worksheet and Study Guide are for your own individual study. These are not for a grade.

Worksheet (Copy to Drive)

Study Guide

Define forensic anthropology.
Define biological profile.
Identify how many bones human infants and adults have.
Define ossification and sexually dimorphic features.
Identify the characteristics that can often be determined from skeletal remains.
Define archaeological context.
Define osteology.
Explain how DNA and isotope analyses are useful for forensic anthropologists.
Review the case studies of forensic anthropology in criminal investigations, human rights investigations, and mass disasters.

References

Ferreira, R. G. (2008). The CIA and Jacobo Arbenz: History of a disinformation campaign. Journal Of Third World Studies, 25(2), 59-81.

Flouri, D. E., Alifragki, A., Gómez García-Donas, J., Kranioti, E. F. (2022). Ancestry estimation: Advances and limitations in forensic applications. Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science, 12, 13-24. https://doi.org/10.2147/RRFMS.S272224

Harakas, M. (1992, July 7). Anthropologist as crime solver. Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1992-07-07-9203010624-story.html

James, B. (1996, July 18). The grim forensic work in Srebrenica. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/18/style/IHT-the-grim-forensic-work-in-srebrenica.html

Kirkpatrick, N. (2014, Ocber 28). Victims of Peru’s ‘dirty war’ are laid to rest. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/10/28/victims-of-perus-dirty-war-are-laid-to-rest/

McEntire, D., Sadiq, A.-A., & Gupta, K. (2012). Unidentified bodies and mass-fatality management in Haiti: A case study of the January 2010 earthquake with a cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters, 30(3), 301-327. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072701203000303

Nystrom, A. (2021, April 1). Forensic anthropology is in her bones: Taylor helps identify youngest Green River Killer victim. Mercer Island Reporter. https://www.mi-reporter.com/news/forensic-anthropology-is-in-her-bones-taylor-helps-identify-youngest-green-river-killer-victim/

Schneibel, A. (2018, September 13). Body Farm helps solve 30-year-old case of missing Indiana woman. University of Tennessee Knoxville News. https://news.utk.edu/2018/09/13/body-farm-helps-solve-30-year-old-case-of-missing-indiana-woman/

Strochlic, N. (2019, December 19). The cold cases of Guatemala’s civil war were impossible to identify—until now. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/bones-of-guatemala-disappeared-impossible-to-identify-until-now

Vermeij, E., Zoon, P., Gerretsen, R., & Otieno-Alego, V. (2022). The outcome of the forensic triage preceding disaster victim identification in the downing of Malaysia Airlines flight 17. Forensic sciences research, 7(3), 566–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2022.2043611

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