Chapter 1

Before Anthropology

Much of human history is marked by traditionalism, or the adherence to traditional beliefs, customs, practices, or values. Traditionalism emphasizes maintaining local customs and resisting change.

In the 14th to 17th centuries, there was a time period called the Renaissance, in which Europe witnessed a period of renewed interest in art, science, literature, and learning that marked a transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era.

After the renaissance came the Scientific Revolution (16th to 18th centuries), which was a period of advancements in science, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. Somewhat coinciding with the scientific revolution is the Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and cultural movement that emphasized reason, science, and skepticism of traditional authority. Many academic disciplines were founded during the Enlightenment, including anthropology.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humanity, encompassing our origins, cultural diversity, and social dynamics. Anthropology invites us to explore the diversity of human experiences across time and space. Anthropologists study the evolution of humans, ancient and modern civilizations, languages, and the rich diversity of cultures.

Scientific Method

Anthropology is within the department of Social Sciences, which means it uses the scientific method, just like biology, psychology, and chemistry. The scientific method is a systematic approach used in research to gain knowledge, understand phenomena, and make predictions based on empirical evidence. The scientific method relies on the systematic collection and observation of data. There are several steps in the scientific method.

1. Observation: Making observations and gathering data about a phenomenon.

2. Research Questions: Formulating a research question or hypothesis based on the observations.

3. Data Collection: Conducting experiments or systematically collecting data to test the hypothesis.

4. Data Analysis: Analyzing the data using statistical methods or other techniques to draw conclusions.

5. Conclusions: Draw meaningful conclusions from the analysis, developing theories to explain the findings, and communicate the results to the scientific community and the broader public.

Four Subfields of Anthropology

The field of anthropology can be divided into four general subfields.

• Biological anthropology is the study of the human animal. Biological anthropology was formerly known as "physical anthropology". The name was changed due to racist history associated with some physical anthropologists. We will explore this more in the Introduction to Biological Anthropology.

• Linguistics is the study of language.

• Cultural anthropology is the study of human social groups, behaviors, and beliefs.

• Archaeology is the study of human societies through the analysis of material remains.

Each of these subfields can be further divided into its own specialties. We will briefly explore some of these specialties in this lesson. As we progress through the course, we will explore each of the subfields and their specialties in greater depth.

Biological Anthropology

Biological anthropology is the study of the human animal. Some of its specialties include...

• Human Evolution: The study of the biological evolution of the human species, including the development of anatomical, physiological, and behavioral characteristics. Darwin (1859) laid the foundation for the theory of evolution and revolutionized our understanding of human origins and the interconnectedness of all life forms.

• Human Growth and Development: The study of human growth, maturation, and the stages individuals experience throughout their lifespan. Lancy (2015) explored the cultural construction of childhood across different societies, highlighting how the concept of childhood is shaped by socio-cultural factors.

• Human Osteology: The study of human skeletal remains, including their identification, analysis, and interpretation for understanding human anatomy, health, and behavior. White and Folkens (2011) authored a widely recognized and authoritative reference for osteological analysis, which included detailed descriptions of skeletal elements, photographs, and practical applications of osteological principles.

• Molecular Anthropology: The study of genetic variation and its implications for human evolution, population history, and disease susceptibility. Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994) traced genetic traits in order to understand prehistoric human migration patterns.

• Forensic Anthropology: The application of anthropological methods to legal and criminal investigations, particularly the identification of human remains and determination of cause of death. Burns (1998) explored how forensic anthropology can be used to understand massacres, genocides, and other violent human rights abuses.

• Primatology: The study of primates, including their behavior, anatomy, genetics, and ecology. Goodall's (1971) research in Gombe Stream National Park of Tanzania provided an early and detailed account of chimpanzee behavior, social structure, and the similarities between humans and chimpanzees.

Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language. Some of its specialties include...

• Historical Linguistics: Examines how languages change over time, as well as the relationships between different language families. Aitchison (2012) outlined the mechanisms of language change, examining the factors that drive languages to evolve and vary.

• Language Acquisition: Focuses on how individuals acquire language, both as children and adults. Pinker (1994) outlined the human capacity for language acquisition and the many cognitive processes involved in language development.

• Discourse Analysis: Examines the ways in which language and communication shape social interactions and power relations. Fairclough (1992) examined the relationship between language, discourse, and social change, highlighting how power structures are maintained, challenged, and transformed.

• Ethnolinguistics: Examines language and culture, exploring how language reflects and influences cultural practices, beliefs, and social interactions. Kroskrity (1993) studied the Tewa people of the Hopi Reservation as they retained and adapted their native language.

• Sociolinguistics: Examines language and social structure, analyzing how language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies, identities, and power dynamics.  Mendoza-Denton (2008) studied young Latinas in gangs, revealing how their speech, body language, and symbolic interactions conveyed gang affiliations, ideologies, and connections to broader social dynamics of nationalism, race/ethnicity, and gender identity.

• Language Documentation: The systematic recording and preservation of endangered languages, capturing their grammar, vocabulary, and cultural context for future study and revitalization efforts.  Austin (1981) outlined the grammar of the Diyari language, documenting its phonology, morphology, and syntax, contributing to the preservation and understanding of this Indigenous Australian language.

• Language Revitalization: Revival and restoration of endangered languages through community-driven initiatives that promote language use, education, and cultural practices. Guerrattaz (2020) explored how Yucatec Maya-speaking contributed to a cultural genesis of a new Maya self-identity in Mexico.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology is the study of human social groups, behaviors, and beliefs. Some of its specialties include...

• Economic Anthropology: The study of how societies produce, distribute, and consume resources, examining the cultural and social dimensions of economic systems. Mauss (2015) explored the cultural and social aspects of gift-giving and exchange in different societies, providing insights into the symbolic, economic, and social dimensions of reciprocal exchange.

• Political Anthropology: Investigates the role of power, authority, and governance in shaping social and political structures. Crais (2005) explored the dynamics of Transkei, South African chiefs and bureaucrats in the 1880s.

• Religious Studies: Examines the cultural beliefs, practices, and rituals of different societies, analyzing their cultural, social, and symbolic dimensions. Geertz (1960) provided an in-depth ethnographic study of Javanese religious practices, exploring the complex interplay between religion, culture, and social structure.

• Urban Anthropology: Examines the cultural, social, and spatial dynamics of cities and urban environments, analyzing the interactions between people, communities, and built environments. Weston (1991) explored the experiences and aspirations of queer individuals who migrate from rural areas to urban centers. She highlighted the significance of urban spaces for fostering queer communities and identities, while demonstrating the often imaginary character of those communities.

• Indigenous Studies: Examines the cultures, histories, and experiences of indigenous peoples, exploring their unique knowledge systems, social structures, and relationships with the environment. Mead (1928) conducted ethnographic research exploring adolescent sexuality, socialization, and cultural variations in attitudes towards adolescence among the indigenous people of Samoa.

• Gender and Sexuality Studies:  Examines the socially constructed nature of gender and sexuality, analyzing how cultural beliefs, practices, and power dynamics shape individuals' experiences and identities. Atshan (2020) explored the complexities of identity, politics, and resistance, highlighting the voices and struggles of LGBTQ+ Palestinians and their efforts to challenge and dismantle oppressive structures.

• Subsistence: Examines systems of food production, distribution, and consumption across societies, analyzing the dynamic relationships between environment, technology, and cultural adaptations. Anthropologists study food systems from hunger-gatherers to large-scale factory farms. Mintz (1986) explored the history and production of sugar, and its relationship to capitalism and industry.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of human societies through the analysis of material remains. Some of its specialties include...

• Excavation: The controlled digging and documentation of archaeological sites, utilizing tools such as trowels, brushes, and screens to reveal and recover artifacts. Dever et al. (1978) published a manual on field excavation methods. While dated, the book provides an excellent snapshot of the field at the time.

• Funerary Archaeology:  Examines mortuary rituals, ancient burial sites, grave goods, and burial customs. Brito Benítez and Chung (2015) documented the unique burial practices of Pomuch, Mexico, in which skeletal remains are stored in open boxes lining the cemetery walls.

• Maritime Archaeology:  The study and exploration of underwater cultural heritage, including shipwrecks, submerged settlements, and maritime landscapes. Throckmorton (1987) chronicled stories of famous shipwrecks and their archaeological exploration, highlighting the role of maritime archaeology in unraveling the mysteries of the past.

• Biblical Archaeology: Focuses on the investigation and interpretation of archaeological sites and artifacts mentioned in the Bible. Hoerth (1998) explored the relationship between archaeology and the Old Testament, discussing key archaeological discoveries and their implications for understanding the historical context of biblical events.

• Ceramic Analysis:  The study of pottery sherds and vessels to examine manufacturing techniques, stylistic variations, and their role in trade and cultural interactions. Shepard's (1956) Ceramics for the archaeologist covered various aspects of pottery study, including classification, decoration, technology, and cultural interpretation.

• Heritage Management: The preservation, conservation, and interpretation of cultural heritage sites and artifacts to ensure their sustainable use and appreciation by present and future generations. Pirkovič (2020) outlined how heritage management at the local level benefits heritage sites and serves the local public.

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