Chapter 13

Subsistence refers to the ways in which individuals and communities obtain the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. It encompasses the strategies and practices used to secure these essentials, including hunting, gathering, farming, and fishing. Subsistence activities are essential for survival and are often closely tied to the environment and natural resources available in a particular region. In this chapter, we'll focus exclusively on food.

Modes of Subsistence

Foraging

Modern humans emerged as a species about 300 thousand years ago (kya). Most of that history occurred during the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), which spans from the first Hominin stone tool use (3.3 mya) to the Neolithic revolution (below).  During this time, humans were primarily foragers, relying on hunting and gathering for sustenance. This subsistence strategy involved collecting wild plant foods and hunting animals. Life expectancy during this time was around 20 to 30 years on average, largely due to high infant mortality rates. However, if individuals survived childhood, they could often live into their 40s or 50s. Generally, early human foragers viewed their environments as reliably providing for their immediate needs and therefore did not seek to create surpluses or over-exploit their resources.  

Foraging societies often contain a division of labor, where individuals or groups are assigned specific tasks based on abilities, skills, and social status. A gendered division of labor often entails men who hunt and women who gather. However, gender roles are often flexible. Both genders engage in child-rearing, food preparation, and tool-making.

Misconceptions and negative attitudes have long surrounded foraging societies. One misconception is that foraging societies have poor diets consisting of food eaten out of desperation combined with collective hunger. To the contrary, Grey (1841) described an Australian Aboriginal society as having varied diets and abundance of food. Another misconception is that foragers must work harder to survive than those engaged in agriculture and/or animal breeding (Lowie, 1946). Contrary to these assumptions, Lee (1968, 1969) found that the Ju/’hoansi "Bushmen" of the Kalahari desert survive through hunter-gathering while working only 15 hours per week. Braidwood (1957) belittled foragers by stating that "a man who spends his whole life following animals just to kill them to eat, or moving from one berry patch to another, is really living just like an animal himself" (p. 122). Today, we may recognize foragers in a new light. Their ingenuity and "fiercely egalitarian" being without broad social inequalities found in other cultures are commendable (Sahlins, 1972).

Horticulture and Pastoralism

Around 10,000 years ago, human societies underwent a significant transition from nomadic foraging to horticultural and pastoral lifestyles known as the Neolithic revolution. During the Neolithic (New Stone Age), agriculture emerged as a more productive subsistence strategy than hunting and gathering, especially during favorable conditions. This allowed farming populations to grow rapidly and sustain themselves over less land. However, agriculture also brought new challenges, such as fears of drought, blight, pests, frost, and famine. Unlike foraging societies, agricultural populations experienced booms and busts in population possibly due to the factors associated with agriculture (Shennan et al., 2013). During the Neolithic era, life expectancy varied widely depending on factors such as region, access to resources, and health care practices. On average, however, life expectancy was likely shorter than in modern times, with estimates ranging from 20 to 40 years. Again, infant mortality rates were high, so individuals who survived childhood could expect to live into their 40s or 50s.

Horticultural societies began cultivating crops like wheat, barley, and rice, leading to more settled communities. These societies relied on simple tools such as digging sticks or hoes and practiced shifting cultivation, where plots of land were cultivated for a few years before being abandoned to allow the soil to recover. This method helped maintain soil fertility and reduce the risk of crop failure.

Alongside horticultural societies, pastoral societies emerged, relying on the raising and herding of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, or camels. Pastoralists often led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, moving with their herds to find fresh pasture and water. Some pastoral societies engaged in trade, exchanging animal products for crops or other goods. These shifts marked the beginning of more complex human societies and laid the groundwork for future agricultural advancements.

In horticultural and pastoral societies, the emergence of social hierarchies and specialized roles often leads to a more pronounced division of labor compared to foraging societies. Gender roles in horticultural and pastoral societies can vary widely depending on the specific culture, but they often reflect a gendered division of labor. In many societies, men are typically responsible for activities such as hunting, herding, and warfare, while women are responsible for tasks related to child-rearing, food preparation, and tending to crops and domesticated animals. 

Examples of horticultural societies can be found around the world. The Tsembaga Maring of New Guinea practice shifting cultivation, growing crops such as sweet potatoes, taro, and yams. In the Amazon rainforest, the Yanomami people cultivate crops like plantains, cassava, and maize in small garden plots. In Africa, the !Kung San of the Kalahari Desert supplement their diet of wild foods with crops such as melons and tubers.

Similarly, pastoral societies are widespread. The Maasai of East Africa are well-known pastoralists, relying on cattle for their livelihood. They move with their herds across the savannas of Kenya and Tanzania, trading cattle for other goods like grain, cloth, and beads. In Mongolia, the nomadic herders known as the Dukha depend on reindeer for milk, transportation, and hides, moving with their herds through the taiga forests.

Agriculture

The revolutionary introduction of the plow around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago marked a pivotal moment in agricultural history, fundamentally altering farming practices. Concurrently, terrace farming, a method utilized in hilly or mountainous regions, gained popularity, further enhancing agricultural productivity. These innovations were instrumental in the establishment of agricultural societies, which were characterized by substantial increases in crop cultivation efficiency, larger populations, more settled lifestyles, and the ability to produce surpluses. Food surplus is an excess of food production beyond immediate consumption needs. These developments subsequently facilitated the evolution of more intricate social structures.

These advances brought on the Bronze Age about 3,000 years ago. The Bronze Age was characterized by the widespread use of bronze, a metal alloy made primarily of copper and tin, which was used to create tools, weapons, and other objects. This period saw significant advancements in metallurgy, as well as the development of complex urban societies, writing systems, and centralized political structures. The Bronze Age also saw the rise of long-distance trade networks, the construction of monumental architecture, and significant surplus. As post-Neolithic societies developed surpluses, another trend developed.  The greater the surpluses a society produced, the greater the levels of inequality in that society (Kohler et al., 2017).

The shift to settled agricultural communities brought about significant changes in social organization and economic structure. With the establishment of permanent settlements, there was a greater emphasis on controlling and passing down property, including land and livestock. This shift likely led to a greater emphasis on lineage and inheritance, as families sought to ensure the transmission of wealth and resources to future generations.

The regulation of women's sexuality and the establishment of monogamous relationships may have served several purposes here. First, by controlling women's sexuality, communities could more easily determine paternity and lineage, ensuring that property and resources were passed down through legitimate heirs. Second, monogamy may have helped to reduce conflicts over resources and inheritance within communities, as individuals were more likely to have clear and undisputed rights to property and offspring. Additionally, the shift to settled agriculture may have led to a greater emphasis on family units as the basic social and economic unit. Monogamous relationships may have been seen as a way to strengthen and stabilize these family units, promoting cooperation and cohesion within communities (McElvaine, 2001).

Industrial Agriculture

Industrial agriculture, a product of the Industrial Revolution, marked a significant shift in food production methods. The Industrial Revolution was a period of profound technological, economic, and social change that began in the late 18th century. Industrial agriculture emerged and expanded rapidly due to advancements in mechanization and technology. The introduction of machinery like tractors and harvesters revolutionized farming practices, increasing efficiency and output.

One of the defining features of industrial agriculture is intensive cultivation. This method aims to maximize yields by using large-scale monoculture, where a single crop is grown over extensive areas. This practice requires significant inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to maintain productivity.

To support intensive cultivation, industrial agriculture relies heavily on irrigation systems. An irrigation system is a method used to provide water to plants in order to help them grow. These systems, including drip irrigation and center pivot irrigation, ensure crops receive adequate water, particularly in areas with unreliable rainfall.

The rise of industrial agriculture has also led to the development of agribusiness and commercial farming. Agribusinesses are large corporations that control various aspects of food production, from seed manufacturing to food processing and distribution. One such company is Monsanto, which has been at the center of numerous controversies. One major issue is the production and promotion of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and related herbicides, such as Roundup. Critics argue that GMOs may have negative health and environmental impacts, and that the use of herbicides like Roundup contributes to the development of herbicide-resistant weeds. Additionally, Monsanto has been involved in legal battles over issues such as patent infringement and alleged harm caused by its products (Robin, 2010).

Overall, industrial agriculture has significantly increased global food production, but it has also raised issues related to environmental sustainability, animal welfare, and the concentration of power in the hands of a few large corporations.

Agriculture and the Environment

Social Problems

Industrial agriculture is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat loss worldwide. As forests are cleared to make way for agricultural land, ecosystems are disrupted, leading to the loss of biodiversity and displacement of wildlife. Deforestation also contributes to climate change, as forests play a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Sustainable land-use practices and reforestation efforts are essential to mitigate the environmental impacts of agriculture.

Intensive agricultural practices, such as monoculture and excessive tilling, can lead to soil degradation and erosion. When soil is exposed to wind and water without adequate vegetation cover, it becomes vulnerable to erosion, which can result in the loss of topsoil and nutrients. Soil degradation can reduce agricultural productivity and degrade water quality. Implementing soil conservation techniques, such as cover cropping and contour plowing, can help mitigate these effects.

The use of pesticides and fertilizers in industrial agriculture can lead to pollution of waterways and soil. Pesticides, in particular, can harm non-target organisms, including beneficial insects and wildlife. Runoff from agricultural fields can carry excess nutrients and chemicals into rivers and lakes, leading to eutrophication and harmful algal blooms. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices and the use of organic farming methods can reduce reliance on chemical inputs and mitigate pollution.

Industrial agriculture is a major contributor to water scarcity, as it often relies heavily on irrigation to support crop growth. In many regions, unsustainable irrigation practices have led to the depletion of aquifers and reduced water availability for other uses. Efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation and precision agriculture, can help conserve water and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture. Additionally, promoting crop varieties that are more drought-resistant can help mitigate the effects of water scarcity on food production.

Livestock farming, particularly of cattle, is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily methane and nitrous oxide. These gasses contribute to global warming and climate change. The expansion of livestock farming, especially in industrialized systems, has led to deforestation, habitat loss, and increased emissions. Sustainable livestock practices, such as rotational grazing and improved manure management, can help reduce emissions and mitigate the environmental impact of livestock farming. Additionally, shifting towards plant-based diets can reduce the demand for meat and dairy products, further reducing emissions.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is an approach to farming that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is based on principles that promote environmental stewardship, economic profitability, and social equity. Sustainable farming practices seek to minimize the use of non-renewable resources, reduce environmental impact, and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems.

Key principles of sustainable agriculture include soil health, water conservation, biodiversity, and ecosystem resilience. Practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and integrated pest management are commonly used to maintain soil fertility, reduce erosion, and minimize the use of synthetic inputs. Sustainable farmers also prioritize animal welfare, using methods such as rotational grazing and mixed cropping to improve soil health and reduce the need for antibiotics and hormones in livestock production.

Organic Farming

Organic farming is an agricultural approach that prioritizes environmental sustainability, biodiversity conservation, and the use of natural inputs. One of its primary strengths lies in its emphasis on avoiding synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), which can have detrimental effects on ecosystems and human health. Instead, organic farmers rely on methods such as crop rotation, composting, and biological pest control to maintain soil fertility and manage pests.

Another strength of organic farming is its focus on animal welfare and the use of sustainable livestock management practices. Organic standards require access to outdoor areas and restrictions on the use of antibiotics and growth hormones in animal production, promoting healthier and more humane farming practices.

However, organic farming also faces several challenges. One notable weakness is its lower productivity compared to conventional farming methods. Without the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, organic farmers may experience lower yields and higher production costs. Additionally, the transition to organic farming can be financially and logistically challenging for farmers, particularly those accustomed to conventional practices.

Furthermore, the organic label has faced criticism for its ambiguity and lack of consistency in standards enforcement. Variations in organic certification criteria across regions and countries can lead to confusion among consumers and undermine the credibility of the organic label. Additionally, organic farming may not always be feasible or practical in certain environments or agricultural systems, posing limitations on its widespread adoption.

Despite these challenges, organic farming continues to grow in popularity as consumers increasingly prioritize sustainability and environmental stewardship in their food choices. By addressing its weaknesses and building on its strengths, organic farming has the potential to play a significant role in creating more resilient and sustainable food systems.

Food and Cultural Identity

Food is not just sustenance; it is a cultural symbol that reflects a society's values, beliefs, and traditions. Across cultures, food plays a central role in rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations, serving as a way to connect with one's heritage and community. For example, in many cultures, certain dishes are prepared during religious holidays or festivals, reinforcing cultural bonds and transmitting culinary traditions across generations.

Culinary traditions are integral to cultural identity, shaping how individuals and communities perceive themselves and others. These traditions encompass not only the ingredients and techniques used in cooking but also the social practices and rituals surrounding food preparation and consumption. Through food, people express their cultural heritage and establish a sense of belonging and continuity with the past.

Food taboos and dietary restrictions are also significant aspects of cultural identity, often influenced by cultural and religious beliefs. A food taboo is a social or religious custom prohibiting the consumption of certain foods. For example, in some cultures, certain foods are considered sacred or forbidden, while in others, dietary restrictions are followed to maintain spiritual purity or health. These taboos and restrictions not only reflect cultural values but also contribute to the formation of cultural identity.

Subcultures within society, such as "foodies" and vegans, also play a role in shaping cultural identity through food. Foodies, enthusiasts who are passionate about gourmet food and culinary experiences, form communities around their shared interest in exploring and celebrating food. Similarly, vegans, who abstain from consuming animal products, often do so as a reflection of their ethical beliefs and identity, aligning their dietary choices with their values.

Food is deeply intertwined with cultural identity, serving as a powerful symbol of heritage, tradition, and community. Through culinary traditions, food taboos, and dietary practices, individuals and communities express their cultural values and beliefs, forging connections with their past and shaping their identity in the present.

Food Distribution and Exchange

Food distribution and exchange are fundamental aspects of human societies, reflecting cultural values, social organization, and economic systems. Different modes of food distribution, including reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange, shape how food is acquired, shared, and consumed within a society.

Reciprocity is a form of exchange where goods or services are exchanged with the expectation of future return. In many traditional societies, reciprocity is a key mechanism for distributing food, ensuring that individuals and communities have access to resources they need.

Redistribution involves the collection of goods or resources by a central authority, who then redistributes them among members of the society. This mode of distribution is often seen in hierarchical societies or chiefdoms, where leaders control the distribution of food as a means of maintaining social order and solidarity.

Market exchange is based on the principles of supply and demand, where goods are bought and sold at a price determined by market forces. In modern societies, market exchange is the dominant mode of food distribution, shaping how food is produced, distributed, and consumed on a global scale.

Cultural systems of exchange, such as gift-giving, potlatch, and barter, also play a role in food distribution. These practices are not just economic transactions but also social and cultural rituals that reinforce social ties and status within a community.

The implications of food distribution systems on social organization and inequality are profound. In societies where food is distributed based on reciprocity or redistribution, social relationships and hierarchies are reinforced, contributing to social cohesion or inequality. In contrast, market-based food distribution systems can lead to disparities in access to food, resulting in food insecurity and social inequalities.

Food deserts and food swamps are modern phenomena that highlight the unequal distribution of food within communities. Food deserts are areas where access to fresh, healthy food is limited, often due to a lack of grocery stores or transportation. Similarly, food swamps are areas where unhealthy, processed foods are more readily available than nutritious options, contributing to health disparities and obesity.

Challenges to traditional subsistence practices, such as land degradation, climate change, and globalization, also impact food distribution and exchange. These challenges require innovative approaches to food distribution and exchange that are sustainable, equitable, and culturally sensitive.

Slideshow 🖼️