Chapter 17

Understanding Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains.

Archeological Time Scales

Now let's consider the classic archaeological time scale originally created by  C.J. Thomsen (1836) and since refined by other scientists.

• Stone Age: Approximately 2.6 million years ago (mya) to 4 thousand years ago (kya)

• Bronze Age: Approximately 3300 to 1200 BCE

• Iron Age: Approximately 1200 BCE to 500 CE

The Stone Age has since been divided into the following categories:

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Approximately 2.6 mya to 10 kya (roughly corresponds with the Pleistocene epoch above). The Paleolithic is also sub-divided.

  • Lower Paleolithic: Approximately 2.6 mya to 300 kya

  • Middle Paleolithic: 300 kya to 30-40 kya

  • Upper Paleolithic: 30-40 kya to 10 kya

• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Approximately 10 kya to 8 kya

• Neolithic (New Stone Age): Approximately 8 kya to 4 kya

We'll explore the archaeological time scales in more detail below when we study tool use and again during the archaeology unit of the course.

History and Prehistory

Another time scale to be aware of is the distinction between historical and prehistoric. Historic refers to all history since the beginning of writing. Prehistoric refers to all history before writing. The historical time period is generally considered to start around 3,200 BCE (with the invention of cuneiform in Mesopotamia) but varies depending on the region.

Antiquarianism 

Antiquarianism, treasure hunting, and looting are interconnected practices that have significantly impacted the field of archaeology. Antiquarianism, which emerged in the Renaissance, was characterized by a fascination with the material remains of ancient civilizations. Antiquarians often collected artifacts for personal interest or as symbols of status, rather than for scholarly purposes. While antiquarianism contributed to the preservation of some artifacts, it also led to the destruction of archaeological sites through unregulated excavation (Burke, 2007).

Treasure hunting involves searching for valuable artifacts, typically for profit. It often disregards archaeological context and site preservation, leading to the loss of valuable information about past societies and contributing to the illicit antiquities trade. Looting, a more destructive form of treasure hunting, involves the deliberate and systematic removal of artifacts from archaeological sites. Looting not only destroys the archaeological record but also damages the cultural heritage of communities. It is often driven by the demand for artifacts in the art market or by collectors. Looting has become a major issue in many parts of the world, leading to the destruction of numerous archaeological sites and the loss of invaluable cultural heritage.

Development of Academic Archaeology

Founding of Archaeological Institutions

Archaeology became formalized as a discipline in the 1800s, with the founding of several professional societies.

• Société des Antiquaires de France (Society of Antiquaries of France) - France (1804)

• Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute) - Germany (1829)

• Royal Archaeological Institute (RAI) - UK (1844)

• École française d'Athènes (French School of Athens) - France (1846)

• Archaeological Survey of India - India (1861)

• American School of Classical Studies at Athens - USA (1881)

• Egypt Exploration Fund (now Egypt Exploration Society) - UK (1882)

Pioneers in the Field

During this time, there were many key figures who were pioneers of archaeology.

Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) was a pioneering figure in archaeology, renowned for his excavations at ancient Troy and Mycenae. While he brought attention to these sites, his use of destructive excavation methods and controversial interpretations have raised questions about the authenticity of some artifacts. Schliemann's archaeological career was most active in the 1870s and 1880s, leaving a lasting impact on the field despite ongoing debates about his methods and findings (Schliemann, 1881).

William Flinders Petrie (1853-1942) revolutionized archaeology by introducing systematic recording and stratigraphy, laying the foundation for modern scientific methodology in the field. Active from the late 19th to the early 20th century, he conducted groundbreaking excavations in Egypt and the Near East, uncovering significant sites and artifacts. His meticulous approach and emphasis on documentation influenced generations of archaeologists (Smith, 1945).

Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976) was a pioneering archaeologist known for advancing excavation techniques, notably the grid system, which revolutionized the meticulous recording of finds and their context. He emphasized collaboration and training, contributing to the professionalization of archaeology. Wheeler was a prolific scholar, active primarily in the early to mid-20th century. His work significantly influenced archaeological methodology and practice, shaping the field for generations to come (Piggott, 1977).

Ethical Issues in Archaeology

Illicit Trade

Unfortunately, looting is still a problem in many parts of the world, posing a significant threat to our shared cultural heritage. Illegal excavations continue to occur at archaeological sites, often driven by the demand for valuable artifacts in the global market. This rampant looting not only destroys archaeological evidence and removes artifacts from their historical context but also fuels the illicit trade of cultural heritage items. Despite efforts by governments, law enforcement agencies, and archaeologists to combat looting, more needs to be done to address this ongoing issue and protect our cultural heritage for future generations.

Spain addressed archaeological looting by enacting new laws, creating regional governments that hired specialized archaeologists, and intensifying efforts through dedicated police and educational campaigns. These measures significantly reduced looting and illicit trade of artifacts (Rodríguez Temiño & Roma Valdés, 2015).

Repatriation

The repatriation of cultural artifacts has become an increasingly important issue in the field of archaeology and cultural heritage. It involves the return of objects to their places of origin or to the descendants of the cultures that created them (Powell et al., 1993). Repatriation is often sought for artifacts that were taken during colonial periods or acquired through illegal or unethical means. Proponents argue that repatriation is a matter of justice, as it acknowledges past wrongs and restores a sense of cultural identity and pride. However, the issue is complex, as it involves questions of ownership, cultural heritage management, and the role of museums and institutions in preserving and sharing cultural objects. Despite these challenges, the repatriation movement has gained momentum in recent years, leading to the return of many significant artifacts to their rightful owners.

The Codex Borgia, a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican manuscript, is currently housed in the Vatican Library, despite calls for its repatriation to Mexico. The Catholic Church has refused to return the codex, citing its role as a custodian of cultural heritage and its commitment to preserving and sharing knowledge. The Vatican argues that the Codex Borgia is part of the world's cultural heritage and should be accessible to scholars and the public worldwide. However, critics argue that the codex is a sacred object that belongs to the indigenous communities of Mexico and should be returned to its rightful owners. The refusal to repatriate the Codex Borgia highlights the complex issues surrounding the repatriation of cultural artifacts and the differing perspectives on ownership and cultural heritage.

Anastylosis

Anastylosis is the process of restoring or reassembling large, often ancient, structures or monuments that have been damaged, destroyed, or fallen into disrepair. This process involves using archaeological evidence, historical records, and sometimes modern technologies to recreate the original form and appearance of the monument. However, ethical questions can arise regarding the extent of reconstruction and the impact on the authenticity and integrity of the original monument.

Stonehenge, a prehistoric monument in England, underwent significant anastylosis efforts in the 20th century. By the early 20th century, Stonehenge was in a state of disrepair, with some stones fallen and others leaning precariously. Various restoration projects were undertaken to stabilize the stones and reconstruct parts of the monument. One of the most notable efforts was the re-erection of the fallen stones in the early 20th century, using cranes and modern lifting equipment to place them back in their original positions. Today, Stonehenge stands as a testament to the engineering and construction skills of its ancient builders, although some aspects of its original form remain unknown or subject to debate among archaeologists (Barber 2014)..

Teotihuacan, an ancient Mesoamerican city in Mexico, has also undergone extensive anastylosis efforts. At its peak, Teotihuacan was one of the largest and most influential cities in the Americas, with impressive pyramids, temples, and residential complexes. However, by the time of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, Teotihuacan was largely abandoned and had fallen into ruin. In the 20th century, efforts began to restore and reconstruct parts of the site, including the Avenue of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun, and the Pyramid of the Moon. These efforts have helped to preserve the site and showcase its grandeur, although some aspects of Teotihuacan's original layout and architecture remain uncertain due to the lack of written records from its inhabitants (Molina-Montes, 1982).

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