Melinda S. Harrison

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch42  

ABSTRACT

Every day we complete writing tasks; some are easy, and some are difficult. As such, the teaching of writing can be challenging. Writing pedagogy used to focus on students’ form and product, such as grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. However, in the late 20th century, the focus on writing in a second or other language began to include an emphasis on process; genre awareness; purposes and modes of writing; and needs of the audience. An effective writing teacher will incorporate these aspects into the curriculum while understanding how to scaffold learning, create authentic and collaborative writing tasks for students, and respond appropriately to students’ writing. In this chapter, you will learn basic knowledge of these aspects for the teaching of writing as well as strategies to guide students to be effective writers in English. 

Keywords: teaching strategies, writing pedagogy, writing process, L2 writing, English learners, genre awareness

Harrison, M. (2023). Strategies to Teach Writing. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 506-513). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch42 

INTRODUCTION

Writing in any language is difficult, but especially in a second or additional language (L2). Regardless of the language, writing requires authors to think about communicative factors such as the writing purpose, the targeted reader, the best mode (with words or with signs), and the best format that will work for the specific communication situation. 

As I write this chapter, I am relying on knowledge of what I do both as a writer and as a teacher who teaches writing to students who are non-native English users. What are my writing strategies? Initially, I have to think about the communication situation. What genre (type of text) do I plan to write? At the moment, I am writing a textbook chapter. So, I need to think about my readers. Most will be pre-service teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). My purpose is to share my knowledge with pre-service teachers about how to teach writing in English. The best mode is probably linguistic (with words), but I may decide to show an idea with a visual graphic, such as a model or picture. As with most textbooks, the format is chosen by the editors, and so I will follow that format when writing this chapter. 

An effective writer considers the communication situation before and as they write. In this chapter, I will share more information on these considerations.

BACKGROUND

Writing is “the most important technology in the history of the human species, except how to make fire,” (Powell, 2009, p. 11). Undoubtedly, you have completed many writing tasks today. Perhaps you wrote lists of assignments you need to complete, chores that need to be done, or items to buy at the store. Maybe you wrote a WhatsApp to your best friend or sent an email to your professor. Among these writing tasks, each has a communication situation which includes an author (you), a reader (either yourself or someone else), a purpose, a format, and a mode.

Although writing in a first language (L1) can be challenging, writing in an L2 can be daunting. Most of us learn to write in our L1 early in life. However, writing in an L2 requires that we know the basics of another language, such as the vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Second language writing researchers study how learning to write in an L2 is unique to learning to write in one’s L1 (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014). Teaching learners to write in an L2 requires us to teach some L1 writing strategies while adapting our teaching to the uniqueness of the L2. As you become more experienced EFL writing instructors, you can identify hurdles for your students based on their L1, their prior knowledge of writing in their L1, their academic development in their L1 and L2, and their potential purpose or need for writing in the L2.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

Before you plan lessons to teach writing in English, consider the learning context, which consists of your learners and the planned learning outcomes. To understand the learning context, conduct a needs assessment to determine what your learners already know and what they need to learn (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014). Here are some questions to get started, but you can surely add more:

• What age/school level are the learners?

• What languages do the learners use?

• Where do the learners use their languages? At school, at home, at work, or elsewhere?

• How much academic literacy do the learners have in their languages, including English?

• For what purposes will they need to write in English? For school, work, travel, or another purpose?

Of course, you will also want to get to know your students’ interests. Reid (2011), a U.S. writing scholar, says that writers should “Write about what you know about, are curious about, are passionate about (or what you can find a way to be curious about or interested in)” (p. 4). Undoubtedly, we have more fun when we write about something that interests us than about something that does not. The same is true for our students. You should help your learners find authentic writing tasks and purposes that interest them and show them tools to make the writing process less mysterious or complicated. If you can do that, your students will enjoy more success with their writing in English and in their L1.

When you get to know your students, you learn about what prior knowledge they bring to the learning situation. But what do they need to learn? The answer to this question will depend on the learning context. If you are teaching in a typical school context, perhaps your students need to practice writing in English for school purposes. Or maybe your learners want to know how to write in English to work remotely or in a country where English is one of the primary languages. How your students plan to use the language is an important factor.

Another factor to consider is the type of writing task(s) your students will need to practice in English. As explained earlier, every writing task has a communication situation that includes an author, a reader, a purpose, and a format. Types of writing tasks are called genres, and there are more communication genres than could ever be counted, with more being developed all the time (Caplan & Johns, 2019). Writing to your friend using WhatsApp is a genre. The research paper you wrote in secondary school is also a genre. Additionally, the genres within a given category can vary from one another. For example, a research paper for one teacher might be very different from a research paper for another teacher. This is why writers need to have genre awareness (Caplan & Johns, 2019). Once you, the teacher, identify the learning outcomes and the genres that your students need to practice, you can plan how to bridge the gap between what they know and what they need to know.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

Second language writing requires a learner to have some mastery of language components such as vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. These ELT topics are covered elsewhere in this book. Here, we will discuss writing processes and assessment, which are central concepts for the teaching of second language writing.

Process: How Do We Write What We Need to Write?

After you and your students have agreed upon the genre they will write and the communication situation (reader, purpose, mode, format), it is time to start the writing process. Writing is a recursive process, which means that writers might need to return to prior steps while composing. To help you understand these steps, I have illustrated this recursive process in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Recursive Writing Process.

The first step in the writing process is invention, which involves activities such as brainstorming, drawing concept maps, freewriting, and discussing the topic with the teacher or with classmates. Invention is perhaps the most important step, as this is where writers generate their ideas. During the invention stage, writers should think about their communication situation: What is their purpose with the writing? What does their reader need to know? Do the writers need to include background information, examples, or supporting details from personal experience, from their textbooks, or from other sources? Writers may find they need more content to include in their writing. If so, have them return to this invention step later in the writing (see Figure 1).

After student-writers have some ideas, they should proceed to outlining. In this step, consider reminding your students about genre awareness. Guide them in thinking about how their writing task should best be organized for their communication situation (purpose, reader, mode, format). Show students some examples of the genre they are writing and ask them to analyze the format of the writing. The analysis of these examples could include identifying the structure of the introduction, background information, general statements, main point of the writing (often called a thesis), details, examples, and conclusion. Keep in mind that a writing outline can take many different forms. Such outlines can be formal with Roman numerals and letters, or they can be bullet points. Students can also choose to draw a picture (or create a graphic) showing the organization of what they plan to write such as the graphic (Figure 1) that I created to help you understand the writing process.

The next step in the process is drafting, during which writers organize their ideas from the invention stage into the structure or format they selected during the outlining stage. Notice in Figure 1 that the drafting stage comes after the invention and outlining stages. However, writers can always return to those earlier stages, if they need to brainstorm more information, do more research, or adjust their outline. Circling back to prior stages is not only appropriate but, also, highly recommended.

One crucial element of the writing process is feedback. Writers need feedback from the teacher and their peers throughout the writing process, not just at the end (Ferris, 2015). Although feedback can focus on many elements, intentionally focus your feedback to match a given stage in the writing process. During early drafting stages, feedback should focus on ideas and organization. For example, if writers are in the invention stage, feedback from the teacher and peers should focus on ideas. If writers are in the outlining stage, feedback should focus on organization. It is not helpful for feedback to focus on minor concerns like grammar and punctuation early in the process unless syntax errors are interfering with intelligibility (Ferris, 2011). Focus your feedback on content and organization, including the use of transitional elements, up until the end of the drafting process, which is the appropriate time to begin addressing grammar and punctuation.

Model for your students how to provide written feedback. As with all activities that students will be doing, first model the desired task (i.e., giving written feedback) and then have students give written feedback to each other while collaboratively working on a sample writing project. If a teacher does not provide direction and a model in how to provide written feedback, students often revert to marking their peers’ grammar and punctuation rather than providing constructive feedback on content and organization. After students provide peer feedback, consider giving your feedback in writing conferences with pairs or groups of students, or individually with one student. During a longer writing unit, it is reasonable for you, as the writing teacher, to have more than one writing conference with a given student. 

The revising stage is often confused with the editing stage. Note in Figure 1 that the revising stage comes before and is separate from the editing stage. Revising means that the writer is making content or organizational changes to the draft. Editing, on the other hand, is correcting sentence-level concerns like grammar and punctuation. Feedback at the editing stage might involve mini lessons with individual students during one-on-one conferences. However, if many students are making the same grammar or punctuation errors, such feedback might be with the entire class. 

Assessment

Most writing teachers find the assessment of writing as the most difficult part in teaching how to write. As with most elements of curriculum design, have your students start their writing project with the end in mind. Identify the outcomes that you want your students to accomplish with this writing task. Divide these outcomes into smaller criteria and use these criteria for designing a rubric to score the writing (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014). If possible, design a rubric specifically for each writing task. Share this rubric with students before they start the writing process. This rubric will later serve as a basis for your summative assessment of each student’s writing. 

After completing the recursive writing process, your student-writers are ready for the summative assessment. However, before your students actually submit their product, again share the rubric, explain how their writing will be assessed, and invite them to self-assess their own writing (Ferris, 2015). Because most students like receiving personalized teacher feedback on their writing, consider writing a short paragraph at the bottom of each student’s rubric describing the strengths of their writing as well as some opportunities for improvement. Afterwards, ask students to reflect on their writing process. This can be a separate assignment in which students reflect on successes and challenges as well as potential applications to their next writing project.

This chapter presented the basics on how to teach L2 writing. Language learning is a process that occurs with time and practice. Give your students real writing tasks, teach them genre awareness, guide them through the writing process, and support them along the way.

Here are some key concepts about strategies to teach writing:

• Get to know your students, which includes knowing about their prior education, their knowledge about writing, their L1, and their need or desire to write in English.

• L2 writers of English have unique challenges in comparison with students who are writing in their L1.

• Writers should analyze the communication situation of the task: audience/reader, purpose, format, and mode (linguistic or visual).

• The writing process has a beginning and an end, with steps along the way. Nonetheless, the writing process is recursive rather than linear. 

• Writing feedback and assessment should be intentional and focused on the objectives for the specific stage of a writing task.  

Based on your knowledge about strategies to teach writing, answer these questions:

1. What do you need to know about your learners, and how might you learn that information?

2. Brainstorm some ways to help your students be aware of the features of various genres.

3. Think about the challenges you have had with writing, both in your L1 and in English. Based on your own experience, what can you share about the writing process with your students that might help them and reassure them?

4. Construct a rubric for your next writing assignment, based on its task and outcomes.

To practice what you have learned about strategies to teach writing, do the following:

1. For each writing task that you do in your L1 or in English, reflect on the communication situation and the process steps. By acquiring a self-awareness of your own writing, you will be able to better relate with your students and their experiences with writing.

2. Begin creating files with ideas for real writing tasks that might fit with your current or future teaching context. These can be ideas that you develop for this purpose or that you happen to find.

To expand your knowledge about strategies to teach writing, visit these websites:

• 5-minute writing conferences. https://www.edutopia.org/article/5-minute-writing-conferences 

• Constructing rubrics. https://www.thoughtco.com/esl-essay-writing-rubric-1212374 

• Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) ESL teacher resources. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/english_as_a_second_language/esl_instructors_tutors/esl_teacher_resources/index.html  

• Writing spaces: Readings on writing. https://writingspaces.org/ 

Related strategies on the teaching of writing are offered in the following chapters of this book: 

Chapter 2 The Diversity of Global Englishes by L. Barratt

Chapter 17 Providing Feedback on Learners’ Language Output by C. Cristóful

Chapter 24 Teaching in Virtual and Hybrid Classrooms by Y. Grevtseva and E. Zyrianova

Chapter 28 Teaching English to Young Learners Through Authentic Literature by S. Ruffinelli and C. Ortiz

Chapter 31 Using Translation and Interpretation in ELT by S. Terol

Chapter 38 A Socio-Cultural Approach to Teaching Grammar by C. Davies, J. Prado, and J. Austin

Chapter 41 Strategies to Teach Reading by E. Kryukova and M. Harrison

Chapter 43 Strategies to Teach Integrated Skills by L. Fuller

Chapter 46 Introduction to Language Assessment by N. Kuhlman

Chapter 49 E-Portfolios to Assess Language Learning by B. Jiménez

Caplan, N. A., & Johns, A. M. (Eds.). (2019). Changing practices for the L2 writing classroom: Moving beyond the five-paragraph essay. University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.10000663

Ferris, D. R. (2011). Treatment of error in second language student writing (2nd ed.). University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.2173290 

Ferris, D. R. (2015). Inclusivity through community: Designing response systems for ‘mixed’ academic writing courses. In M. Roberge, K. M. Losey, & M. Wald (Eds.), Teaching U.S.-educated multilingual writers: Pedagogical practices from and for the classroom (pp. 11-40). University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.6127774

Ferris, D. R., & Hedgcock, J. S. (2014). Teaching L2 composition: Purpose, process, and practice (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813003

Powell, B. B. (2009). Writing: Theory and history of the technology of civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. 

Reid, E. S. (2011). Ten ways to think about writing: Metaphoric musings for college writing students. In C. Lowe & P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing (Vol. 2). Writing Spaces; Parlor Press; WAC Clearinghouse. https://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/reid--ten-ways-to-think.pdf 

Melinda Harrison has taught writing in high schools and post-secondary U.S. contexts including intensive English programs, university first-year composition departments, and graduate degree programs. Melinda earned a bachelor’s degree in secondary English education (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA) and a master’s degree in rhetoric, composition, and second language writing (Illinois State University). She earned an educational specialist degree in teaching of English to speakers of other languages and a doctorate in pedagogical studies in diverse populations (University of Alabama at Birmingham). Melinda focuses her research on how to make writing curricula more inclusive of multilingual writers and thus empower them in English literacy tasks. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6939-6870 

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: msharr3@uab.edu

Cover Photo by Santi Vedrí on Unsplash