Catherine E. Davies

Josephine Prado

Julia S. Austin

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch38  

ABSTRACT

The word “grammar” frightens many people, probably because of unpleasant experiences with grammar lessons that were a set of rules to be memorized. In this chapter, you will learn about a broader and more useful way to think about grammar, and you will learn several options for teaching grammar. Based on your own preferences, you can then adapt your teaching and, thus, better meet the needs of your students. If English is not your first language, you have a big advantage when teaching grammar because of how you learned English as an additional language, as your students are doing. This means that, based on your own experiences, you can anticipate the challenges that might arise because of grammatical differences between English and your students’ native language. Consequently, you are well prepared to explain grammatical differences to your students and, thus, provide them with useful strategies for learning English grammar. 

Keywords: grammar, socio-cultural teaching approach, English learners, language variation

How to cite this chapter: 

Davies, C., Prado, J. & Austin, J. (2023). A Socio-Cultural Approach to Teaching Grammar. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 453-462). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch38

INTRODUCTION

Learning a second language differs from learning a first language. Every language is comprised of a unique and complex linguistic system that includes essential components such as the sounds (phonology) of the language, the formation of words (morphology) and the sentence structure (syntax). The second language learner approaches the new language with a linguistic system already in place. You can see this natural effect in the learner’s unfamiliar accent, whereby learners process the new phonology through their existing system. You have also known second language speakers who continue to use transfers from their first language grammar that don’t quite work in the second language (although typically they can make themselves understood for a specific communication goal). When trying to communicate in a second language, speakers may transfer words partially or entirely from their first language or organize words from the new language in a confusing and unclear manner. Vocabulary and sentence structure are important, but grammar also includes meaning (semantics) and appropriate use of language (pragmatics). Speakers use all these grammatical components simultaneously to create a coherent message. Adolescent and adult second language learners are more cognitively mature and capable of reflecting on language than young children. Therefore, skillful grammar teaching can be effective at helping older learners build an additional linguistic system by showing and clarifying the significant differences between the native language and the target language. It can also help the learner to identify their learning preferences and develop related strategies to enhance learning their second language.  

BACKGROUND

Humans have been curious about linguistic systems, or grammars, for thousands of years. The first evidence comes from 4,000 years ago when a scribe in Babylon prepared tables of verb forms in two languages. The Greeks further developed grammatical analysis, and by the Middle Ages, the evolving school curriculum included grammar (of Latin) as one of its three pillars. Until the 20th century, the classic deductive grammar-translation approach remained a standard method of teaching and learning a foreign language. Meanwhile, outside of school, people learned languages through interaction with others, relatively unconsciously, without any explicit understanding of grammar. In the 20th century, language teaching began integrating both modes of language learning (direct instruction and informal communication) through communicative approaches (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). In the 21st century, grammar instruction moved from prescriptive rules to descriptive approaches that are more accessible and practical (DeCapua, 2008). 

All languages are composed of a range of different varieties that emerge because of geography, contact with other languages, social stratification, and levels of formality in interaction. A link between language variety and one’s sense of identity can be particularly important, and individuals have different degrees of facility in shifting varieties or styles. The particular grammar identified with an officially named language (like English or Spanish) is a political question determined by power within the society. It is then perpetuated through the educational system and language ideology. 

With grammar viewed as a socio-cultural phenomenon (Crystal, 2010), reflect on your role as an English teacher and your responsibility to your students. Clearly, you want your students to learn a variety of standardized formal English so they will be judged favorably by educated English speakers (Lippi-Green et al., 2022). Consider other socio-cultural aspects by answering these questions: 

• Which formalized variety will you choose? 

• What range of spoken styles, from very casual to formal, do you want to help your students develop? 

• What other varieties should you expose them to? 

• Will you take a linguist’s perspective and teach your students to value all varieties for each variety’s own linguistic integrity, while at the same time making them aware of the social judgments that may exist among native English speakers about those different varieties?

By now having considered these socio-cultural aspects, think about how you would like to teach grammar to your students.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

To plan effective grammar lessons that are appropriate for your students, first ask yourself these methods-based questions. Use your responses as a guide in planning your lessons. 

• What is the context of your teaching? Are there institutional constraints (e.g., a set curriculum, preferred methodology, limited access to technology, class size)? 

• What are your students’ goals in learning English? Are you preparing students for further education in an English-speaking country? A position in international business? Travel in English-speaking countries or places where English is a lingua franca? 

• What varieties of English will your students need to listen, speak, read, and write? Should you focus on formalized Inner Circle English varieties (Kachru, 1992)? If your students plan to study or work in an English-speaking environment, will they need to know the social and regional varieties for that area? 

• What are your options for an appropriate sequence of grammatical concepts in relation to the entire curriculum? 

• Reflecting on what you have learned about options for grammar teaching, what are your preferred techniques (explicit and deductive versus implicit and inductive)? Which grammar patterns need an explicit explanation instead of an implicit approach where students analyze discourse to discover the patterns on their own? When is it appropriate to integrate both? 

• How will you provide sufficient practice in speaking and writing so that English grammatical patterns become habitual for your students? How can you use free online resources to supplement your classroom interaction with students?

• What resources can you consult when you have questions about teaching topics: comprehensive English grammar, comparative grammars, examples of effective grammar teaching activities, and academic research on sociolinguistics?

• How can you take advantage of the connection between grammar and pragmatics to provide greater insight into English? 

After thinking about the above questions, plan lessons where students can explore the grammar-pragmatics connections in situations such as these: language used to indicate gender, forms used as second person pronouns (singular and plural), and usage patterns and prescriptive judgments associated with multiple negation in English. Teaching suggestions are provided in the next section.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

To guide students with exploring connections between grammar and pragmatics, design your teaching around major changes in English grammar. Consider implementing strategies that engage students in discovering the grammar-pragmatic connections related to such changes. Here are three examples: 

Possessive Adjectives and Cultural Sensitivity to Gender Issues 

Consider this sentence in our chapter’s Introduction: “It can also help the learner to identify their learning preferences.” Here the possessive adjective “their” refers to a singular antecedent, “the learner.” In response to this apparent grammatical error, a conservative prescriptivist (someone who insists on following grammar rules) would immediately take a red pen and replace the possessive adjective “their” with “his/her.” In this particular sentence, we chose to use the adjective “their” with a singular antecedent because English does not have a gender-neutral third person singular possessive pronoun other than “its” (which is unacceptable when referring to a person). In this way, English is like Spanish and many other languages (but not Chinese).

In casual spoken English, the gap of not having a gender-neutral third person singular pronoun is filled when people use “their” to refer to singular antecedents. As can be expected, the grammar police (also known as prescriptivists) have tried to eliminate the singular use of “their” from edited standardized English. However, these prescriptivists could not counteract a societal movement that affected grammar when some people began using “they” and “their” to identify their own individual self. Because this sensitive relation between language and gender issues has been growing, the singular use of formerly plural pronouns (they, their, them) is starting to appear in writing. 

To avoid condemnation by the grammar police, many style guides previously suggested pluralizing the noun antecedent which would have produced a change in our Introduction with the following sentence: “It can also help the learners to identify their learning preferences.” However, in 2019, when the widely used APA style guide (7th ed.) adopted “they/their” as singular third person pronouns, the singular use of “their” transitioned from being acceptable for oral usage to also being acceptable for written usage.

Strategy: When planning an English grammar lesson, consider employing grammar changes as teaching opportunities such as the following: 

• gender patterns in standardized English grammar, 

• similarities and differences of English and Spanish pronouns (and you could even use it to remind students that English does not have gender for nouns in the same way that Spanish does), 

• differences between casual spoken English and formal written English, 

• relations between language and culture (social issues of gender, in this case), and 

• possible language change in progress that involves actual grammatical patterns (not just vocabulary). 

English Auxiliary Verb “do” and Potential Issues for Spanish Speakers 

For this grammatical point, show students that English once had a verb pattern more like Spanish (Baugh & Cable, 2013; Crystal, 2019). Here are some examples from Shakespeare’s time (Early Modern English): “Slept the man well last night?” and “The king knows not.” Both examples now require an “auxiliary do” with the main verb. Ask students to provide Spanish translations (which would require them to see that one is past tense, and the other is present tense): ¿El hombre durmió bien anoche? and “El rey no sabe.” Explain (per our theme of constant change in the grammar of a language) that English changed and began to require an auxiliary verb in negative and interrogative sentences. 

Strategy: First, see if your students know how to say those sentences in contemporary English. If not, provide the modern English versions (“Did the man sleep well last night?” and “The king doesn’t know”) and have them analyze what has happened. Then, have students compare the modern English sentences to Spanish, and ask what they think might be challenging. In the interrogative sentence, they may anticipate forgetting to begin the question with a form of “do.” In the negative sentence, they may anticipate forgetting both to include a form of “do” before the negative and, also, to conjugate and contract “do” and “not” into “doesn’t.” Finally, design exercises and activities for students to practice modern English verb patterns until these patterns sound normal. 

Multiple Negation

English grammar requires one element for negation (“I didn’t see anything”), and Spanish grammar requires two (or more) elements for negation (“No vi nada”). Again, you can point out that English once accepted multiple negation (found in the work of famous writers in earlier centuries), but that the grammar has changed. This change occurred because of the power of prescriptive grammar. The 17th century writers of English grammar books decided that language should work like mathematics. Although grammar is definitely not like mathematics, these grammarians decreed that two negatives cancel each other out. Today, English speakers have to say, “I didn’t see anything” (with one negative) or in a stilted way “I saw nothing.” In other words, standardized English grammar forbids a direct transfer from the Spanish pattern: “I didn’t see nothing.” If you say this among educated English speakers, you will be judged as speaking a social or regional variety. Because multiple negation is alive and well in many regional dialects and casual styles of speaking English, listen closely to the native speakers of English with whom you interact and then consider adapting how you speak. 

Strategy: Explain to your students that even though it may feel completely natural to use a double negative pattern in English, this will not be viewed favorably in all contexts. Have students generate a list of various speaking situations and contexts in English and determine whether the double negative would be acceptable or not. Then, have students discuss the kinds of exercises that could help them automatically use a single negative in English. 

Second Person Pronouns

Second person pronouns can be windows into many dimensions of grammar. As with other aspects of English grammar, second person pronoun usage has changed. English changed from a former system, where we used to have the singular form “thou” (like Spanish “tú”), to the present system, where “thou” has been replaced by “you” (like Spanish “usted”). This led to modern English not having a separate second person plural pronoun (like “ustedes” in Spanish). Linguists are not clear exactly why this happened, but now we must live with it. Speakers have come up with workarounds to fill this second person plural gap, but these alternatives have never been accepted into standardized grammar. For example, in the United States, Southerners often say “y’all” (contraction of “you” and “all”). Speakers of other regional varieties might say “youse” (which sounds like “you” followed by a plural suffix “-s”) or “you-uns” (which sounds like “you” followed by the plural word “ones”). Meanwhile, across the United States, “you guys” is becoming more widespread for addressing second person plural, especially in informal settings.

Strategy: Have your students create a chart of subject pronouns for their country’s language(s). Ask them to discuss how these pronouns are used. For example, when addressing a single person in Spanish, ask them to explain why they would choose “tú” or “usted.” Or, if you are in Paraguay or another Southern Cone country (or perhaps in Nicaragua), when do you use the singular “vos” instead of either “tú” or “usted”?  Students may be aware of differences among varieties of Spanish or patterns of subject pronouns for a local language such as Guaraní, which you could also discuss, if appropriate. Then, have students draw the same chart for English and see how quickly they notice that the second person pronouns are not only the same for singular and plural, but that the singular (“you are”) uses the plural verb form! The logical singular form would be “you is,” but it has been removed from standardized usage and might elicit a negative reaction from other people. As you discuss this with students, lead them to questioning how English speakers can convey the kind of formality associated with the formal pronoun of other languages (e.g., “usted”). This provides an opening into the relation between grammar and pragmatics, which is the range of ways (grammatical and otherwise) available to a speaker to show formality and respect. 

In this chapter, you learned about taking a socio-cultural approach to teaching grammar. You learned about considering several socio-cultural aspects before planning grammar lessons and about making students aware of historical changes in English grammar. You also learned that today’s social and regional varieties often have different grammar usages.

Here are some key concepts to remember from this chapter:

• Grammar, as the system of a language, has often been restricted to morphology (how words are formed) and syntax (how words are sequenced to form sentences). Instead, grammar should be viewed as a socio-cultural phenomenon, especially for pedagogical purposes (Larsen-Freeman, 2003). 

• Grammar needs to be understood as inextricably linked to pragmatics (language usage). 

• A second language learner has both a first-language linguistic system and greater cognitive engagement than a child learning a first language. 

• A bi- or multi-lingual teacher is well-prepared to anticipate challenges faced by language learners and to offer strategies for success in mastering the new language. 

• The sequence of grammatical topics needs to fit within the whole curriculum and be based on the goals of the learners. 

• A range of approaches can be used to teach grammar, drawing on both the unconscious and conscious awareness of the learner and their learning preferences. 

• For the new system to become habitual and functional, students need more than just being taught grammatical terminology and rules; they need opportunities for appropriate practice. 

• Learners should be exposed to different varieties of English, with distinctive grammatical patterns, along with the social values attached to those varieties. 

• Attitudes of English speakers toward grammatical correctness are important for learners to understand. 

Reflect on the following questions:

1. What aspects of learning English grammar were most challenging for you?

2. How did your knowledge of your first language help you in learning English? How will you apply these insights to teaching English? 

3. What prejudices do you have about varied grammatical forms in your native language? Do you know the origins of those attitudes? Are you aware of typical prejudices of English speakers?

4. Are you aware of social values (positive and negative) attached to varieties of Spanish? To varieties of English? Give examples.

To apply what you have learned in this chapter, do the following:

1. Investigate how grammar is taught on free online language learning sources (e.g., Duolingo or Busuu) or grammar sites (e.g., GrammarBytes or ThoughtCo.). Consider how you might use these technological resources to supplement your classroom teaching (e.g., to create language habits in your students). 

2. Look for discourse in English (e.g., YouTube) that represents a range of styles in English, from informal casual discourse to formal public discourse (e.g., TED Talks or college lectures). Transcribe and analyze the grammar, with a view to using these discourse examples as part of your teaching of grammar.

These resources provide useful grammar explanations, research findings, and teaching activities:

• English Club grammar. https://www.englishclub.com/grammar   

• GrammarBytes. http://www.chompchomp.com/ 

• Purdue Online Writing (OWL at Purdue). https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html    

• TESOL resource center, TESOL International Association. www.TESOL.org    

• ThoughtCo./English grammar. https://www.thoughtco.com/esl-grammar-4133089 

Insights to teaching grammar are also provided in the following chapters of this book: 

Chapter 2 The Diversities of Global Englishes by L. Barratt

Chapter 10 Building Language Awareness by H. Lalwani

Chapter 11 Using Social Media to Enhance Language Awareness by S. Terol and J. Amarilla

Chapter 12 Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition by C. Fernández

Chapter 22 Strengthening Communication Through Classroom Discourse by K. Buckley-Ess

Chapter 42 Strategies to Teach Writing by M. Harrison

Chapter 43 Strategies to Teach Integrated Skills by L. Fuller 

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Baugh, A. C., & Cable, T. (2013). A history of the English language (6th rev. ed.). Pearson. 

Crystal, D. (2010). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Crystal, D. (2019). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.  

DeCapua, A. (2008). Grammar for teachers: A guide to American English for native and non-native English speakers. Springer. 

Kachru, B. (Ed.). (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd ed.). University of Illinois Press. 

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring. Thomson Heinle.

Lippi-Green, R., Barrett, R., Cramer, J., & McGowan, K. B. (2022). English with an accent: Language, ideology and discrimination in the United States (3rd ed.). Routledge. 

Richards, J. C., & T. S. Rodgers. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press 

Catherine E. Davies earned a master’s in foreign language education at Stanford University and a doctorate in linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley (USA). As a professor for over 30 years, Catherine taught multiple courses in the English Department, University of Alabama (Tuscaloosa, USA), for the master’s in teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). She has published widely on various aspects of second language learning. She is an avid language-learner and, since retirement, has been studying seven languages through Babbel with one language for each day of the week. Catherine was hosted by Susan Spezzini in Paraguay to teach a graduate course through the University of Alabama and while there took a lesson in Guaraní.

Josephine Prado earned a master’s in English, master’s in TESOL, and doctorate in English as a Second Language (ESL) from the University of Alabama. In 2013, Josephine joined the faculty at the University of Alabama at Birmingham where she prepares teachers for effectively working with English learners. Her research interests explore ESL teacher advocacy and the development of culturally sustaining curriculum. She has taught graduate courses in second language acquisition, teaching in a multicultural society, family and community engagement, ESL methods, and – her favorite – grammar and linguistics for ESL teachers. With this chapter, Josephine had the honor to collaborate with two of her former professors.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7328-4620  

Julia S. Austin earned a master’s in English, master’s in TESOL, and doctorate in English (rhetoric and composition) from the University of Alabama. Julia served as director of professional development for the Graduate School at the University of Alabama at Birmingham where she taught a range of courses in academic writing, teaching at the college level, grant writing, and professional speaking. She also developed the ESL teacher preparation program at the School of Education where she created and taught several courses. Julia loves teaching so much that she has continued to teach during her retirement. 

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: juliaaustin@bellsouth.net

Cover Photo by Amador Loureiro on Unsplash