Silvia Terol

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch31  

ABSTRACT

A common misconception is that everyone who speaks two languages is also capable of doing translation and interpretation (T&I). Contrary to this widespread myth and regardless of one’s mastery of each language, translating and interpreting consist of distinct skills that must be learned, practiced, and mastered before being used professionally. In this chapter, you will learn how to define T&I and how to apply T&I skills to enhance the teaching and learning of English. You will learn how to implement T&I strategies to build vocabulary, strengthen reading and listening comprehension, and develop written and oral communication. You will also reach a clearer understanding of how the professionalization of these skills can pave the road towards formalizing T&I as a totally separate profession. 

Keywords: translation, interpretation, improving English skills by translating and interpreting

How to cite this chapter: 

Terol, S. (2023). Using Translation and Interpretation in ELT. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 376-385). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch31

INTRODUCTION

A longstanding debate is whether all bilinguals (people who speak two or more languages) are translators. Another debate is whether translation and interpretation (T&I) activities should take place in language classrooms. By exploring these debates, we can become better informed about distinguishing bilingual individuals from T&I professionals, dividing T&I situations into context categories, and differentiating the T&I profession from the English language teaching (ELT) profession. When combined, these perspectives offer insights toward professionalizing the T&I career and further developing the T&I industry, especially in countries with an incipient language market. 

Translation is the written transfer of meaning from a source language into a target language, and interpretation is the oral transfer of meaning from a source language into a target language. Translating and interpreting can be viewed jointly for the purpose of a conceptual framework. However, for the purpose of applied pedagogy, translating and interpreting should be viewed separately with specific instructional activities targeted to develop the translating skill and other specific instructional activities targeted to develop the interpreting skill. Although instructional T&I activities have routinely been used in programs to prepare T&I professionals, they can also be used in ELT classrooms to help learners enhance their language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). In both settings, T&I activities require the use of a first language (L1) and second language (L2).    

background

Historically, T&I has been viewed as either natural or professional. Natural T&I is undertaken by bilinguals (or emerging bilinguals), and professional T&I is undertaken by T&I professionals (Harris, 1978). Bilinguals of all ages (including children) naturally transfer daily-life meaning from one language to another—orally and almost unconsciously. By doing this, these bilinguals are undertaking natural T&I. However, simply knowing two languages does not naturally lead to more advanced competencies of translating and interpreting (Kolawole, 2012). This is evidenced by the fact that many bilinguals fail the entrance examinations to T&I preparation programs. In such cases, these bilinguals must improve their bilingual skills before once again trying to pursue their dream of becoming T&I professionals. 

Though bilinguals might know two languages, they do not automatically possess competencies for doing T&I in different types of settings. Except for natural settings, bilinguals must be taught how to do T&I in other settings, such as academic and professional. To facilitate building T&I competencies in such settings, T&I has been viewed as a fifth skill alongside reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Campbell, 2002; Naimushin, 2002). When bilinguals are taught T&I as a distinct skill, this tends to strengthen their other language skills.  

However, the widespread adoption of communicative teaching approaches in the 1990s led to the students’ L1 no longer being used for instructional support in ELT classes. The premise that an L2 is learned better when students think and communicate exclusively in that language resulted in greatly reducing the L1 presence in many language classrooms and, also, in excluding T&I activities (Putrawan, 2019). Nonetheless, as institutions became well versed in communicative teaching, several reconsidered the role and status of T&I in their ELT classrooms. This has led to some ELT institutions applying communicative activities for the teaching of T&I skills (Nagy, 2015).

major dimensions

Before considering the incorporation of T&I in your ELT classroom, become knowledgeable about the following:

Viewing T&I as Three Categories

T&I activities can be divided in three categories: natural, pedagogic, and professional (Campbell, 2002; Harris, 1978; Nagy, 2015). Aspects related to each category are outlined in Table 1.

Table 1

Three T&I Categories

As illustrated in Table 1, the three T&I categories can be described as follows:

• Natural T&I is performed almost instinctively by many social bilinguals who have not studied T&I and who are at varying stages of L2 learning (Harris, 1978). Outcomes are viewed as satisfactory when the main idea is shared, such as for jokes, emails, and menus. Bilingual interference is minimally problematic. 

• Pedagogic T&I is performed by proficient bilinguals who have taken one or two courses for learning to do T&I at their workplaces. Outcomes are satisfactory when concepts and details are transmitted. Bilingual interference can be problematic. 

• Professional T&I is performed by advanced bilinguals with specialized training whose competencies are demonstrated through T&I assessments or internationally recognized licenses such as to work in conferences or with governments. Outcomes are satisfactory only if international standards are met. Bilingual interference is unacceptable. 

Using T&I in Informal Situations

As learners acquire L2, many perform T&I actions–even without formal study (Campbell, 2002). In social settings, they might interpret something said (joke) or translate a common item (menu). In these informal situations, natural T&I “is not only an integral part of bilingual behavior but is integral to the behavior of language learners and to the process of language acquisition itself” (p. 60). Here, L2 ability corresponds to an ability for doing natural T&I. 

Using T&I in ELT Classrooms

When you were studying a new language, you might not have done T&I in your language classes. However, you have probably done T&I in natural contexts such as helping others understand emails, songs, tourist information, and work-based documents. If bilinguals end up doing T&I, why are such activities not included in ELT curricula? Some reasons might be the demographic distribution of English learners and the economic role played by English in the ELT industry with most materials being published in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia (Campbell, 2002). Regardless of where the materials are published, they are often used worldwide by English learners who represent innumerable languages. Because it is impossible to tailor such materials for multiple languages, these materials are mostly English-only and used in countries where the ELT curriculum focuses on English to the exclusion of T&I activities. However, in regions like Latin America where many countries share the same language, some basic T&I training is often “incorporated into English syllabuses, especially at university level” (Campbell, 2002, p. 63). This represents pedagogic T&I (Petrocchi, 2014). 

Using T&I in the Workplace

Because many jobs require T&I skills beyond those in natural T&I contexts, bilinguals need the knowledge and academic training provided in pedagogic T&I courses. The T&I activities in ELT courses provide basic T&I competencies for use at worksites. However, even as recent as 2020, most of the ELT world did not favorably view T&I as a separate language skill. This unfavorable perspective likely emerged from the grammar-translation method for teaching a new language, which prevailed during the first half of the 20th century (Naimushin, 2002). Nonetheless, some translating and interpreting techniques have been included in ELT curriculum “as the fifth skill and applied to the level and specific needs of the students” (p. 47), especially in courses targeted to prepare preservice language teachers. Through such pedagogic T&I training, bilinguals can expand their bilingual proficiency and improve their ability to perform T&I within and beyond natural contexts. 

Using T&I as a Pedagogical Tool

By taking a pedagogic perspective, T&I can be viewed as a tool to create learning opportunities through contrastive analysis, vocabulary building, and peer editing as well as reading and listening comprehension. Yet, even when T&I is included as the fifth skill in an ELT syllabus, this does not represent professional T&I. In other words, the instruction of T&I in a language classroom “must be clearly distinguished from training professional translators and interpreters; the objectives and methods of these two types of training are very different” (Naimushin, 2002, p. 47). Another difference between professional T&I and pedagogic T&I is that the training of professional translators and interpreters “starts where foreign language teaching ends” (Nagy, 2015, p. 97). 

Of the three T&I categories (natural, pedagogic, professional), pedagogic T&I fits within the overall scope of this book and is the focus of this chapter. Activities and strategies for teaching pedagogic T&I are provided in the next section.

pedagogical applications

In ELT classrooms, pedagogic T&I activities are not used in conjunction with the grammar-translation approach. Rather, activities for pedagogic T&I are used to support communicative and cultural approaches for the teaching and learning of English. For example, when doing T&I activities, students work together collaboratively to find equivalencies and idiomatic expressions to convey messages from the source language into the target language. By doing so, they assume agency for building their own vocabulary. Below, you will see how pedagogic translation activities can help learners develop reading and writing skills and how pedagogic interpretation activities help learners develop listening and speaking skills.

Translation: Reading and Writing

Translation uses two language skills—reading and writing. After a message is read in a source language, it is written in a target language. A possible pathway for effectively preparing a translation could be as follows:

• Become acquainted with the topic by first skimming through the source text.

• Gather materials needed for translation such as glossaries, dictionaries (monolingual or bilingual), and texts in the target language related to the topic in the source text.

• Translate a first draft.

• Read your draft in the target language to make grammatical corrections and fix idiomatic expressions.

• Compare your target text with the source text to identify meaning errors and omissions.

• Proofread your target text.

This translation process can include a feedback step with peer review done in pairs or whole class. Peer review offers many advantages over self-review (Insai & Poonlarp, 2017). The greatest benefit of peer review comes when students view translation as a problem-solving task to be solved by working together collaboratively. During their collaborative work, students use communication and language skills as well as negotiation and social skills. For peer review to be successful, a positive feedback spirit must be present throughout.

When doing translation activities in your ELT classroom, select texts based on student needs and language levels. If possible, use translation activities to complement topics in your current unit of study (rather than using translation as a type of filler). Translation activities also enhance group interaction and ensure that all students understand the intended meaning. Consider doing a class project based on translation. A sample project could be to subtitle a movie into a target language. This subtitling could be done in groups or with the full class (Bolaños García-Escribano, 2017). Before starting a group translation project like this one, encourage your students to explore the open-source subtitling websites listed in this chapter’s Expanding Further section. 

Interpretation: Listening and Speaking

Interpretation uses the other two language skills—listening and speaking. It consists of the oral transfer of meaning from one language to another language. This oral transfer takes place either consecutively or simultaneously, with the latter done just by T&I professionals. Interpretation requires intense listening to understand not just the words and their meanings but also the body language, intonation, and cultural connotations. A common approach for teaching pedagogic interpretation is having students take turns interpreting oral discourse. Ideally, start by having students listen to a very short recording in L2 and then interpret it into their L1. When choosing a segment for this introductory interpretation activity, consider your students’ language level and the segment’s difficulty and length. Avoid choosing something that is too difficult as this might frustrate your students, make them afraid, and block them from trying. 

Students can also practice interpretation skills by first preparing short impromptu talks (about one to two minutes in length) and then taking turns giving this impromptu talk and interpreting a peer’s talk. Ask students to generate or suggest topics (e.g., wakeup routine, favorite recipe, best pet). After selecting a topic from this list, each student organizes ideas and writes them as short bullet points. Depending on class size and time availability, all students participate as a presenter and, also, as an interpreter. 

Divide students into pairs or have them create their own pairs. In each pair, the goal is for each student to serve as both presenter and interpreter. In this way, everyone can experience the challenge of presenting and, also, the challenge of interpreting. If you wish, start by having students in each pair rehearse privately by presenting and interpreting to one other. After the first member of a pair presents, and the second member interprets, these roles are reversed.  During this same time, the students in each of the other pairs are also rehearsing privately. In these rehearsals, students gain confidence before having to interpret in front of others. Although rehearsals are not part of real-life interpreting (neither in natural settings nor in professional settings), these interpretation rehearsals play an integral role in pedagogic settings to prepare students for interpreting in real-life situations. 

This presentation/interpretation activity proceeds in the following manner. While the presenter talks, the interpreter listens. The interpreter focuses intently on the overall message rather than on individual words. The interpreter does not take notes because when people take notes, their brain is split doing multiple things at once. Consequently, note-taking is not used in pedagogic interpretation activities (such as is done when training professional interpreters). Immediately after the student presenter finishes, the student interpreter interprets with the goal of staying true to the presenter’s original message. This is an example of simple consecutive interpretation.

After student pairs have rehearsed privately, each pair presents and interprets in front of the whole class (or within a group of 6 to 8 students). After a student pair has presented and interpreted the first student’s short talk, lead a round of feedback regarding the interpretation. Encourage your student reviewers to initially offer positive feedback and then describe ways to improve this interpretation with respect to omissions, meaning shifts, grammar usage, word choice, and stylistic aspects. This review should focus on the main goal of interpretation, that of accurately transmitting the meaning. 

This interpretation activity helps students develop their listening and speaking skills as well as their memory skill. After students become used to providing feedback in a positive way and, also, to receiving feedback without feeling personally critiqued, they become more comfortable with sharing their opinions and expressing what they think. Depending on your goals for this activity, you might allow students to give feedback in either L1 or L2. 

To further extend this activity, have a regular Interpreting Day, such as to conclude each thematic unit. Because interpreting is easier when presenters use visual aids, base the first interpretation activity on having students demonstrate, such as making origami, preparing a snack, or planting a succulent. Subsequent activities could entail longer talks. After students feel comfortable with interpreting, they can give speeches to enhance lesson topics. They can write and deliver their own speech or read another person’s speech. Possibilities are endless, such as short YouTube videos, Ted-Ed lessons, and famous speeches like Martin Luther King’s I Have a Dream. Each speech should last from two to three minutes because it will be difficult for student interpreters to recall longer segments without taking notes. 

In this chapter, you learned that being bilingual does not imply an ability to translate or interpret. You learned about three T&I categories: natural, pedagogic, and professional. You also learned how to incorporate pedagogic T&I activities in your ELT classroom.

Here are some key concepts about T&I:

• • Natural T&I is the process by which bilinguals, without formal T&I training, transfer meaning from one language to another language, usually in social settings. 

  • Pedagogic T&I uses T&I as an instructional tool for improving bilinguals’ ability to perform T&I in their personal lives and at their respective worksites. 

  • Professional T&I is performed by individuals who have completed professional training or passed international language examinations to become licensed translators or interpreters such as for working at conferences and in government settings.  

With respect to including T&I in ELT classes, answer these questions:

1. 1. What did you know about T&I when learning another language? Did you use T&I at that time? Was it helpful? Did you experience bilingual interference? What difficulties did you face when translating or interpreting?

   2. How has your view of T&I changed from reading this chapter or from using T&I activities in your class? How would you suggest trying to change others’ perceptions about T&I? 

   3. Will the inclusion of T&I activities in language classrooms impact the ELT industry or the professional T&I industry? If so, what are some activities that you could consider including? If not, explain your reasons.

To practice T&I in your ELT classroom, do the following:

1. 1. Identify T&I activities for your class and outline instructional goals to guide evaluation. 

   2. Determine T&I skills that can be developed or strengthened with a given T&I activity. 

   3. Identify appropriate texts (written and oral) based on student needs and language levels.

   4. Create a positive atmosphere for students to provide and receive peer feedback on T&I.

To learn more about pedagogic T&I, visit these websites:

• • Free subtitle editing. https://www.checksub.com/subtitle/best-online-free-subtitle-editor/  

  • Podcast. https://shows.acast.com/esltalk/episodes/episode-28-translation-and-interpretation-in-the-esl-classro  

  • Search “translation and interpretation in ELT” in Google Academic. 

  • Search for consecutive interpreting. Ted-Ed 

  • T&I activities in ELT. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/translation-activities-language-classroom  

  • T&I in classrooms. https://oupeltglobalblog.com/2011/10/20/translation-in-language-teaching-and-learning/ 

Topics related to T&I are addressed by other chapters in this book: 

Chapter 2 The Diversity of Global Englishes by L. Barratt

Chapter 10 Building Language Awareness by H. Lalwani

Chapter 15 Exploring Meaning Through Translanguaging Practices by K. Liu and J. Choi

Chapter 17 Providing Feedback on Learners’ Language Output by C. Cristóful

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Campbell, S. (2002, February). Translation in the context of EFL: The fifth macroskill? TEFLIN Journal, 13(1), 58-72. http://journal.teflin.org/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/139/124

Harris, B. (1978, February). The difference between natural and professional translation. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 34(3), 417-427. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.34.3.417

Insai, S., & Poonlarp, T. (2017, July-December). More heads are better than one: Peer editing in a translation classroom of EFL learners (EJ1171212). PASAA: Journal of Language Teaching and Learning in Thailand, 54, 82-107. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1171212

Kolawole, S. O. (2012, April). Is every bilingual a translator? Translation Journal, Language & Communication, 16(2). http://translationjournal.net/journal/60bilingual.htm

Nagy, I. K. (2015). Translation in ESL classes. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae: Philologica, 7(3), 87-107. https://doi.org/10.1515/ausp-2015-0057 

Naimushin, B. (2002, October). Translation in foreign language teaching: The fifth skill. MET Current Issues, 11(4), 46-49. http://eprints.nbu.bg/id/eprint/1615/1/Naimushin_Translation_Fifth_Skill.pdf

Petrocchi, V. (2014, Spring). Pedagogic translation vs. translation teaching: A compromise between theory and practice. Italica, 91(1), 95-109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i24367311 

Putrawan, G. E. (2019, March). The role of first language and translation in EFL learning: A brief literature review. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation, 2(2), 150-154. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332865622 

Silvia Terol holds a bachelor’s degree in English from the Instituto Superior de Lenguas, Universidad Nacional de Asunción. After ten years of teaching young learners in bilingual schools, Silvia received a Fulbright and earned a master’s in translation at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey (USA). She interned at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, Pan American Health Organization, and World Intellectual Property Organization. Silvia is a university professor and consultant for projects in which education, communication, and languages intersect with literacy, teacher training, cultural awareness, and STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics).

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5329-0684

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: isl-sterol@fil.una.py

Cover Photo by Arno Senoner on Unsplash