Christian Cristóful

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch17  

ABSTRACT

As teachers, we guide learners in producing oral and written English that is developmentally appropriate for their ages and language levels. When our learners speak and write, they produce language output. Based on their output, we provide feedback to help them further develop their new language and improve their accuracy. At times, however, we might feel unsure about how best to offer constructive and useful feedback to our language learners, especially when trying to help them recognize and correct certain errors. We might be concerned that such corrective feedback could threaten our learners’ emerging and fragile self-esteem as users of the English language. In this chapter, you will learn about providing effective feedback to guide learners in reflecting on their language output, developing their language proficiency, and building their self-esteem as English users. You will also learn about providing effective feedback based on learners’ ages, language levels, and learning goals. 

Keywords: language output, effective feedback, error correction, English learners, developing language proficiency

How to cite this chapter: 

Cristóful, C. (2023). Providing Feedback on Learners’ Language Output. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 213-222). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch17

INTRODUCTION

During the process of learning a second or subsequent language (L2), learners develop receptive skills (listening and reading) and productive skills (speaking and writing). L2 learners develop their productive skills by producing language output, which is speaking and writing. However, this L2 output naturally contains developmental errors as an inherent part of the L2 learning process. Such errors represent the language learning phases through which L2 learners advance as they develop their productive skills by speaking and writing. Through supportive feedback from teachers and peers, learners can gain greater awareness of their L2 errors. By doing so, these learners become enabled for continuing to develop their L2 output. 

As teachers, we can provide supportive feedback to language learners by responding to their L2 output. However, instead of simply correcting their errors, we need to recognize their efforts and demonstrate our empathy. When L2 learners receive our positive feedback, they feel empowered for making corrective adjustments (Herra & Kulinska, 2019). Supportive feedback also helps L2 learners become aware of their language development and gain confidence as L2 users. Knowing how to provide such feedback is essential for becoming an effective teacher.  

BACKGROUND

Language learners naturally make errors when speaking and writing. These errors change in nature as these learners gradually move to higher levels of L2 production. As they learn more, they expand and improve their L2 output. They can be helped by receiving meaningful feedback that recognizes what they did well and explains “what they did wrong or may still need to improve” (Woolf, 2020, p.1). Such feedback is “a critical variable in student learning in general and particularly in developing language proficiency” (Gebril & Brown, 2020, p. 1). While advancing through the various stages of L2 development, language learners are able to recognize and correct their own errors through supportive feedback from teachers and peers as well as through reflective feedback techniques.

Teacher feedback is when teachers give feedback to L2 learners to support their language learning efforts and to suggest ways for correcting errors (Gan et al., 2021). Effective teachers learn to balance the following:

• teaching new language forms, 

• keeping learner motivation high, 

• providing feedback on learners’ language attempts, and 

• knowing how students might react to feedback—especially corrective feedback. 

Teacher feedback is usually “mediated by teacher conceptions of teaching, student relationships with their teachers, and structural constraints, such as modularized programs or large classes” (Gan et al., 2021, p. 3). With experience, teachers know which feedback techniques are most useful in which situations, which errors are appropriate for corrective feedback based on the learners’ age and language level, and which types of feedback can most effectively lead to increased fluency and accuracy.

Peer feedback is when peers provide feedback either one-on-one, within a group, or in a full class setting. Depending on their own L2 proficiency, peers have varying abilities for identifying ways to help each other improve their respective L2 output. When two or more peers give feedback to the same classmate, they frequently have different ideas for how this classmate can improve vocabulary and grammar, which, in turn, can enhance the potential of such feedback (Karim et al., 2018). After modeling for students on how to give peer-to-peer feedback, assign one or more of the following peer feedback tasks:

• As a one-on-one activity, a peer gives individual feedback on a classmate’s writing. 

• As part of a group activity, peers give feedback to each other on something they have spoken or written. 

• As a full class activity, peers give feedback on a classmate’s presentation by identifying one aspect they like and giving suggestions for improving another aspect (Cavallo, 2019).

Reflective feedback is when language learners reflect on their own L2 output (oral and written) and identify ways to improve. Here, learners assume “responsibility to correct their own errors” (Karim et al., 2018, p. 123). Although L2 learners might initially be challenged at self-critiquing and self-correcting, they can be guided in using these self-help strategies (Budden, 2008). By knowing how to reflect on their own L2 output, language learners 

• build confidence in using L2, 

• develop self-esteem as L2 users, and 

• become empowered for progressing toward more advanced L2 levels. 

During cyclical feedback interactions, learners learn to reflect on their own output when guided by others (e.g., teacher and peers). Such interactive feedback is effective at helping L2 learners critique their oral and written output, identify what to correct, and ultimately self-correct.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

Effective interactive feedback helps learners focus on their L2 output and make improvements (Hyland & Hyland, 2019). Although feedback might look different when responding to oral output versus written output, the goal is the same—support learners for improving L2 output and for gaining confidence as L2 users.

Responding to Learners’ Oral Output 

When responding to learners’ oral output, use various feedback techniques. For example, when you teach or give feedback, accompany your words with non-linguistic cues to help L2 learners feel comfortable and understand your intended message (Ferlazzo & Hull Sypnieski, 2018). Such non-linguistic cues are facial expressions, gestures, and other types of body language.

On the first day of class, start guiding learners with understanding your non-linguistic cues. Explicitly explain that you will be communicating through facial expressions, gestures, and body language. Consistently use the same non-linguistic cues to convey the same meaning (Bartolomei-Torres, 2019). Explain to learners that these non-linguistic cues provide feedback for recognizing something good as well as for signaling errors and guiding self-correction. 

When giving feedback on learners’ oral output, use facial expressions and head movements to convey specific messages. Smiling and nodding convey “excellent job,” “bingo,” and “that’s it!” A questioning smile and shaking head convey “no, not exactly,” “not quite,” and “try again.” Such non-linguistic cues provide instantaneous feedback. However, avoid using overly drastic expressions. Depending on the learners’ home cultures, exaggerated expressions might be inappropriate and, thus, discourage rather than encourage.

Gestures can also serve to provide feedback and are especially useful in classes where students represent diverse learning preferences. Keep in mind, however, that body language varies greatly among cultures. For example, the thumbs-up gesture is positive in many cultures (representing positive feedback) yet vulgar in other cultures. Nonetheless, when well selected, body language is effective at giving instantaneous feedback to learners’ L2 output. As feedback, gestures affirm output efforts and encourage learners to keep talking. Gestures and other body language can also help learners understand new L2 vocabulary, such as illustrated by these examples:

• Pronouns. To communicate “I/me/my,” point to yourself. For “you/your,” point to a student in front of you and at a conversational distance. For “she/her/hers,” point to a girl at a slight distance. For “he/him/his,” point to a boy at a slight distance. For “they/them/their,” point to several students at a distance and make a circular motion. 

• Demonstratives. Touch a single item (e.g., one book) to show the meaning of “this.” Touch three items (e.g., three books) and make a circular motion to show “these.” Point to a single item in the distance for “that” and to three items in the distance for “those.” 

• Actions. When giving oral L2 instructions, act out what is expected of students (e.g., speak, listen, read, write, cut, look, click). Also, act out action verbs (e.g., sit, jump, fly, drive), animals (e.g., dog, cat, bird, snake, elephant), and other vocabulary that can easily be represented with actions. 

• Time and Tenses. Point backwards with a hitchhiking sign to show the meaning of “past/yesterday/before.” Point repeatedly to the floor in front of you to show the meaning of “here” and “today/present/now.” Make a rolling index finger movement and point forward into the distance to show the meaning of “tomorrow/future/later.”

Through non-linguistic cues (facial expressions, gestures, actions), your teaching will soon resemble acting. However, of greater importance is that your non-linguistic cues will serve as positive feedback to oral output produced by your learners and, as such, will keep them talking. 

Responding to Learners’ Written Output

When responding to learners’ written output, use a variety of feedback techniques, including non-linguistic feedback. For example, consider using emojis and happy faces in response to their written output just like when using smiles and gestures in response to their oral output. Similarly, in response to both oral and written output, delay the corrective feedback of grammar errors until later in the learning process. Instead, employ feedback techniques that do not interrupt the flow of L2 discourse (oral and written). 

Depending on the learners’ ages and language levels, vary your feedback to their L2 written output (Hyland & Hyland, 2019). When providing such feedback, be sure to

• recognize the efforts of your L2 writers (even if they wrote just a few words), 

• build the confidence of L2 learners as emerging writers, and 

• encourage language learners to keep writing.

Beginning learners might be writing words in a list or phrases in a graphic organizer (which are analogous to brief utterances). Advanced learners might be writing essays and reports (which are analogous to oral presentations). Regardless of the genre, writers at all language levels need to receive feedback letting them know that they are on the right track (Hyland & Hyland, 2019). Otherwise, they may stop trying. Here are some tips:

• Write brief suggestions to the student writer (e.g., Remember to add “s” for plural).

• Include a congratulatory and encouraging comment at the end of each writing task.

• Have task-specific writing conferences with individuals, pairs, and/or small groups.

When L2 learners write essays and other complex pieces, give feedback at each stage of the writing process. These stages are often identified as brainstorming, outlining, drafting, revising, and finalizing (Hyland & Hyland, 2019). Do not postpone feedback until the end of the writing process such as when grading the final product. Consider following these suggestions:

• Focus your feedback on the goals for the stage in the writing process being reviewed. 

• Provide feedback on ideas, content, and organization in the early stages.

• Delay giving feedback on grammar and punctuation until later stages.

Focus the writer’s attention on the first occurrence of an error by providing a suggestion (e.g., Remember to use “s” for plural nouns). Identify later occurrences of this same error by circling, underlining, or highlighting. Another way would be to use codes such as T for tense, CAP for capitalization, and slash (/) for delete. Finally, instead of writing a comment like “awkward” or “run-on,” share your experience as a reader by writing: “I’m confused. Can you help me understand by dividing this sentence into two separate sentences?” Students usually respond positively to helping you—their teacher—to understand their intended message.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

Use several strategies (implicit and explicit) to provide feedback that is appropriate for L2 learners’ ages and language levels. When selecting strategies, consider the following:

Providing Feedback to Learners in Different Age Groups

Young learners need consistent guided feedback for effectively learning new vocabulary and structures. Be consistent and repetitive with patterned structures and targeted forms. Keep in mind that younger learners often become discouraged when corrected. Therefore, make sure they understand why you are giving feedback to their oral and written output. This is important for helping learners monitor their L2 output and be able to self-correct. Above all, when giving feedback, be genuinely kind and encouraging.

Adolescent learners are motivated by what they perceive as interesting (Garside, 2018). Based on their interests, guide them towards fluency and accuracy by designing dynamic classes with ongoing feedback from you and their peers. Because teens usually welcome peer feedback, create peer-feedback activities to support collaborative learning.

Some adult learners might eagerly accept your feedback, apply your corrective advice, and try again. However, depending on their personality, others might avoid trying again. Such differences are often due to self-esteem (Abrams, 2014). For supporting all learners, be tactful and reaffirm their efforts. Ask them how they would like to receive feedback (Budden, 2008). Because adults often seek explanations for grammar and pronunciation, prepare in advance to answer such questions or reply that you will find out for the next class. Above all, be patient and smile.

Providing Feedback to Learners at Different Language Levels

Beginning learners are just starting to use the L2. Because this might be their first experience with a new language, explicitly guide them in how to go about learning. Explain the gestures, facial expressions, and body language that you are using when presenting new vocabulary and structures. As appropriate, use facial expressions and body language when giving feedback on learners’ oral output (and, also, their written output). Guide them in how to receive feedback.

Because intermediate learners understand non-verbal cues and are experienced about receiving feedback, offer constructive feedback of greater substance. For example, after students finish a group activity, have them work individually on a graphic organizer. Move quietly around the room, stopping for a few seconds by each student. In a soft voice, offer personalized feedback, both affirmative (e.g., I like how you described …) and corrective (e.g., A better word is …). 

Advanced learners can communicate about complex topics. Nonetheless, although they can participate in interesting discourse (oral and written), they still need feedback. To help advanced L2 learners reach greater accuracy, provide constructive feedback. For example, while students are doing individual work (e.g., writing an essay), move quietly from desk to desk offering positive feedback and constructive suggestions. Or do a follow-up class activity at the board showing common grammar errors and explaining ways to correct these errors.

Providing Feedback in Response to L2 Errors

When providing feedback in response to L2 errors, find a balance between correcting for accuracy and maintaining high motivation. Be flexible and encouraging with respect to learners’ emerging output—both oral and written. Although a learner’s utterance might be grammatically inaccurate, consider accepting it as developmentally appropriate (Woolf, 2020). However, when you do identify a need for corrective feedback, select feedback techniques that are appropriate for a learner’s age and language level. To determine the best way to provide corrective feedback, first get to know your students—individually as well as in groups. Then, use feedback techniques that support their personal learning needs.

For many learners, error correction creates anxiety and hinders progress. To avoid demotivating students, refrain from over-correcting. Too much correction can negatively affect students’ self-esteem and discourage them to the point of refusing to participate (Buden, 2008). Yet, regardless of these recommended feedback practices, some teachers still try to correct all errors and seem surprised when such efforts do not lead to intended outcomes (Buden, 2008). Instead, help your students view errors as learning opportunities (Ferlazzo & Hull Sypnieski, 2018). By raising their awareness, you can guide your students with self-correcting. This, in turn, can help foster greater accuracy.

For some learners, error correction can serve to advance their learning. This is often the case regarding pronunciation errors. For example, Spanish speakers often misplace English stress on words such as “category.” In anticipation of providing corrective feedback, first compile several English words where L1 interference might lead to using stress patterns that are incorrect in L2. Explicitly explain L2 stress patterns to learners and have them practice words in isolation and context. Because most learners are unaware of having previously used incorrect stress patterns, they are usually appreciative of explicit corrective feedback and opportunities to practice. 

In this chapter, you learned about the importance of providing positive feedback to English learners regarding their language output. You learned about feedback techniques for responding to learners’ oral output and written output. You also learned about responding differently to learners’ L2 output depending on their ages and language levels as well as their learning needs.

Here are key concepts about providing effective feedback:

• Providing feedback to language learners fosters their learning and performance.

• Balance is essential because feedback greatly influences motivation.

• Tailored feedback is based on determining a student’s learning needs.

• No single recipe exists for providing feedback or correcting errors.

• When based on raising awareness, error correction can foster L2 accuracy.

Regarding feedback on learners’ language output, answer these questions:

1. Which feedback strategies are suitable for your students? Why? Why not?

2. Should language learners be corrected less frequently as they advance in their language skills? Why or why not?

3. How can marking every single mistake influence a student’s self-esteem?

Apply what you have learned about providing feedback on learners’ language output:

1. Identify classroom activities designed to develop fluency and accuracy.

2. Reflect on useful feedback strategies and include these in your lesson plans.

3. Identify feedback strategies and error correction techniques that you use more frequently. Describe how you can make your feedback more meaningful to students.

4. Think about which error correction techniques work for each of your student groups.

5. Explain factors that most influence your use of specific error correction techniques. Describe how you might consider students’ ages, language levels, and learning needs.

To learn more about providing feedback to learners’ language output, visit these websites:

• Effective feedback. https://www.actfl.org/resources/guiding-principles-language-learning/effective-feedback  

• Error correction games for students to correct their own writing. http://www.kenlackman.com/files/WritingErrorsBook10A4.pdf   

• Giving feedback to language learners. www.cambridge.org/us/files/4415/8594/0876/Giving_Feedback_minipaper_ONLINE.pdf  

• Providing effective feedback for learning. https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/20-ways-to-provide-effective-feedback-for-learning 

• YouTube: Search for “effective feedback” and “error correction.”

Aspects about providing feedback are also addressed by other chapters in this book:

Chapter 15 Exploring Meaning in Translanguaging Practices by K. Liu and J. Choi

Chapter 40 Strategies to Teach Speaking by S. Spezzini

Chapter 42 Strategies to Teach Writing by M. Harrison

Chapter 44 Strategies to Teach Pronunciation by S. Spezzini

Chapter 46 Introduction to Language Assessment by N. Kuhlman

Chapter 47 Authentic Assessment of, for, and as Learning by G. Díaz Maggioli 

Abrams, A. (2014, July 14). Want to learn a language? Don't try so hard. Time. https://time.com/3013439/language-trying-hurts-learning/ 

Bartolomei-Torres, P. (2019, November 12). Meaningful learning and its implications in the classroom. LearningBP. https://www.learningbp.com/meaningful-learning-ausubel-theory/ 

Budden, J. (2008). Error correction. Teaching English: British Council. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/error-correction

Cavallo, J. (2019, December 19). How to give effective presentation feedback. The ASCO Post. https://ascopost.com/issues/december-25-2019/how-to-give-effective-presentation-feedback/  

Ferlazzo, L., & Hull Sypnieski, K. (2018, Fall). Teaching English language learners. Tips from the classroom. American Educator, 42(3), 12-16. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1192755.pdf

Gan, Z., An, Z., & Liu, F. (2021, June). Teacher feedback practices, student feedback motivation, and feedback behavior: How are they associated with learning outcomes? Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-14.  https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697045/full 

Garside, T. (2018, August 13) Unlocking student motivation and engagement: What makes learners tick? English for Asia. https://hongkongtesol.com/blog/unlocking-student-motivation-and-engagement-what-makes-learners-tick 

Gebril, A., & Brown, G. T. L. (2020). Quality of feedback in TESOL: A learning-oriented assessment perspective. In J. D. Martinez Agudo (Ed.), Quality in TESOL and teacher education: From a results culture to a quality culture (pp. 140-149). Routledge. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336738316  

Herra, A., & Kulinska, A. (2019, November) The role of feedback in the process of learning English as a foreign language. Forum Filologiczne Ateneum, 1(6), 127-143.  https://doi.org/10.36575/2353-2912/1(6)2018.127 

Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (Eds.). (2019). Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108635547   

Karim, A., Mohamed, A. R., Ismail, S. A. M. M., Shahed, F. H., Rahman, M. M., & Haque, H. (2018, March). Error analysis in EFL writing classroom. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8(4), 122-138. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n4p122 

Woolf, N. (2020, February 10). What research says about giving effective feedback to students. Inside SEL Research Brief. https://insidesel.com/2020/02/10/researchbrief-feedback. 

Christian Cristoful has been preparing pre-service teachers of English as a foreign language since 2003. He coordinates the English bachelor’s degree program at the Instituto Superior de Lenguas (ISL), Universidad Nacional de Asuncion, and teaches linguistics and language pedagogy at the ISL, Universidad Evangélica del Paraguay, and Instituto Nacional de Educación Superior. Christian has taught English to all ages and language levels at a language institute. He has also taught a teacher preparation course for the University of Cambridge Teaching Knowledge Test. After earning a bachelor’s degree in English from the ISL, Christian completed a master’s program in applied linguistics. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5399-6293  

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: ccristoful@fil.una.py

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