Aida Rodomanchenko

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch16   

ABSTRACT

Have you ever been in a situation where you lost your train of thought because of being asked a question mid-talk or were distracted by a side comment? Probably, like others, you struggled to get back on track. Although such interruptions are part of authentic conversations, they are rarely addressed in English classes. In this chapter, you will learn about strategies for dealing with the unknown and unexpected in conversations and other speaking situations. You will learn about conversational elements, different types of interruptions that can occur in conversations, and various ways to use English interjections when responding to such interruptions. You will also learn how to incorporate interjections to facilitate conversational flow. 

Keywords: interjections, interruptions, conversational flow, authentic conversations, conversational elements, discourse strategies

How to cite this chapter: 

Rodomanchenko, A. (2023). Incorporating Interjections to Facilitate Conversational Flow. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 199-211). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch16

INTRODUCTION

We participate in everyday conversations to express ourselves and share our views. In these conversations, we use words and phrases for targeted purposes such as giving instructions and receiving information (Lewis & Hill, 1985). To participate effectively in such conversations, English learners need to acquire specific skills and strategies. They might learn vocabulary, pronunciation, and accuracy in their English classes. However, they are rarely taught skills for managing conversations or strategies for using interjections (Thornbury, 2005). By acquiring such skills and strategies, English learners can participate more actively in conversations and, by doing so, become better prepared to perform on international exams and interact at professional events. However, interjections are rarely included as a topic in the curriculum and textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), perhaps because of not being viewed as a separate linguistic category (O’Connell & Kowal, 2008).

Interjections can be short sudden expressions of emotion that serve as conversational fillers. When used like this, interjections are not overly problematic for EFL students (Rodomanchenko, 2014). However, our students are challenged by interjections when used, either intentionally or unintentionally, to interrupt conversations. This interrupting function is reflected in alternative expressions for interjections, such as interruptions coined by O’Connell and Kowal (2008) and interventions coined by Farr (2006). Through targeted instructional strategies, EFL students can learn to handle interruptions and incorporate interjections for facilitating conversational flow.  

BACKGROUND

Among speaking skills, an invariant kernel is the ability to initiate and maintain a conversation while speaking at a normal pace without long pauses. This is assessed at the B2-C1 levels of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2018). This ability includes several micro skills such as handling interjections, reporting back (e.g., confirming or rejecting), and responding spontaneously and effortlessly. Although handling interjections is crucial in academic and professional contexts, this skill is often not used consistently by EFL learners in their everyday conversations (Rodomanchenko, 2014).

Interactional conversations belong to a communication genre that has social interaction as its main goal. Such conversations comprise small talk, casual interactions, discussions, roundtables, and debates. This type of conversation, whether planned or unplanned, is usually co-constructive. Effective speakers utilize a variety of interactive conversation elements and are attuned to the schematic structure of a given conversation (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). Such structures include prosodic principles that are characteristic of the specific genre for that conversation. 

Effective participation in a conversation leads to communicative achievement. This achievement presupposes psychological aspects of spontaneous spoken discourse such as intersubjectivity, perspectivity, verbal integrity, and open-endedness as well as a readiness to actively listen and co-construct the direction of a conversation in real time (O’Connell & Kowal, 2008). To ensure communicative achievement, effective speakers use discourse knowledge, respect cooperative principles, and observe quality, quantity, relevance, and manner (Grice, 1975). Such speakers also control and manage their speech for thematic organization, coherence, cohesion, logical ordering, style, register, and rhetorical effectiveness (COE, 2018).

In conversations, communicative achievement also requires agenda management (often called topic management). As a vital dimension of conversational structure, agenda management is the way a speaker might introduce, develop, and change topics (e.g., We've got two issues…). When one topic ends, the speaker introduces a new topic or reintroduces a previous one by using a transition element or another aspect of functional language (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). To keep the speaker talking, others might provide verbal and non-verbal motivational cues (Richards, 2008). When speakers are interrupted, they use interjections to compensate for this unexpected deviation and, by doing so, recover their agenda management.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

We can discover how native speakers participate in conversations, deal with interruptions, and use interjections by examining the scripts from four conversations (A, B, C, D) provided in the appendix. Each conversation has a speaker (person initially talking) and an interlocutor (person initially listening). The speaker and interlocutor interrupt each other by using interjections. They respond to the other person’s interruption by doing one or more of the following:

• ignore the interjection or interrupt the interrupter 

• acknowledge the interjection verbally or non-verbally and then continue or switch topics

• view the interjection as a technique for maintaining an interactive conversation and then change perspectives or switch topics

The speakers and their interlocutors initially responded in the above ways when first being interrupted (Appendix: Conversations A, B, C, D). However, after these initial responses, they employed the following strategies when handling ongoing interruptions and, also, when using additional interjections.

Turn-Taking, Interjecting, and Backchannelling

Conversations entail turn-taking, interjecting, and backchanneling as well as multiple overlaps and other types of interruptions (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). These elements are part of normal conversations and, as such, do not occur randomly. Speakers and interlocutors unconsciously understand culturally specific signals, both explicit (e.g., questions, adjacency pairs) and implicit (e.g., pauses, including long awkward pauses). For example, native speakers of a given language are adept at knowing when and how to take their respective turns, especially in the frequent turn-taking of casual conversations. However, when coming from different cultures with varying cultural norms, a speaker might view an interlocutor’s backchanneling as intrusive and hostile.

In conversations with greater degrees of informality, interruptions occur with greater frequency. For example, speakers and interlocutors tend to complete each other’s turns and frequently interject and backchannel. Interjecting and backchanneling are key elements in a conversation. These two elements may appear to be similar; yet crucial differences exist. Interjecting serves to introduce or recycle a topic. Backchanneling shows interest in a topic without adding new information; it is an active listening skill that supports a conversation and helps the flow. 

During each of these four conversations (Appendix: Conversations A, B, C, D), the speaker and interlocutor employed different ways of interjecting and/or backchanneling. They made choices based on their familiarity with each other and, also, on the format and tone of their respective conversations. From these conversations, I selected the following examples of interjecting and backchanneling: 

• polite interjections (Conversation A)

• intrusive interjections (Conversation C: lines 2, 4, 6)

• backchanneling (Conversation A: line 5)

• functional language (Conversation D: lines 1, 2, 4, 6, 8)

• neither backchanneling nor functional language (Conversation C)

Cultural Perspectives of Politeness 

Speakers and interlocutors must understand cultural perspectives of politeness for effectively being able to interrupt a conversation and use interjections. For example, because interrupting is usually seen as impolite, interlocutors use functional language when interjecting (e.g., I’m sorry to interrupt.) and, upon doing so, assume the speaker role (Conversation D: line 6). Perceptions of interjections differ among cultures, contexts, and gender. Among Australians, teasing and friendly ridicule occur more frequently in male groups, whereas storytelling and opinion voicing occur more frequently in female groups (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). Americans, with a time-is-money mindset, tend to interrupt swiftly (Schmidt, 2010). British, known as over-polite masters of indirect communication (Gibson, 2010), are less inclined to interrupt and, also, expect not to be interrupted by others. However, whenever British interrupt a conversation, they use functional language preceding the interjection. Speakers from cultures where people do not mind interrupting others are less likely to be offended by being interrupted themselves. 

Responses to Interjections

In genuine conversations, interlocutors do not wait patiently for speakers to give them the floor. As questions and comments arise, the speaker is interrupted. After handling the interruption and resuming the speaker role, a speaker usually does not return to where the interruption occurred but, instead, might continue with a new dynamic (O’Connell & Kowal, 2008). Effective speakers often regard interjections as springboards to keep conversations going (Conversation A: line 5). When dealing with an intrusive interjection, the speaker might 

• change the topic (Conversation C: line 11),

• ignore the interjection (Conversation C: lines 3, 5, 7, 8, 10), 

• interrupt the interrupter (Conversation C: line 9), or

• try to continue speaking. 

Depending on their conversational goal, speakers might not switch topics; instead, they might simply acknowledge the interjection non-verbally (nodding a head) or verbally (e.g., Thank you for the question. I’ll come back to it later.).

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

Explicit strategy instruction helps EFL students use functional language for politely interrupting and casually interjecting, which, in turn, can help them manage conversations in a native-like way (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). Such strategies also help when addressing an audience and being interrupted by questioning and heckling (Rodomanchenko, 2014). When interrupted, native speakers often struggle to get back on track; this is even more challenging for EFL speakers. Help your EFL students deal with interruptions and manage conversations by having them take part in activities for roleplaying interruptions, practicing interjections, and recognizing politeness norms as well as for pausing and backchanneling.

Roleplaying Interruptions

EFL students often follow a classroom rule (written or unwritten) of not interrupting one another. Instead, they patiently wait their turn or use a narrative juncture to signal turn-taking. This type of implicit no-interruption rule can hinder a teacher’s attempt at spontaneous dialogue and generate polite monologues without the characteristics of spontaneous discourse, such as open-endedness and co-construction (O’Connell & Kowal, 2008).

To help your students sidestep this overpolite situation, suggest a controversial issue, and then limit the length of time for turn-taking. For example, in my British Studies class, I used a balloon debate, which is an activity where students debate something controversial, such as deciding who to save in a damaged hot-air balloon (Thornbury, 2005). This type of debate generates diverse opinions and thus triggers interruptions requiring the use of interjections. In my class, I tracked the time it took students to complete the first debate round and then allowed half the initial time for the second round. The more engaged my students became, the more they used interjections for interrupting and responding. Consider engaging your students with authentically using interjections by selecting controversial issues (e.g., balloon debates) and arguable topics (e.g., favorite actors). 

Practicing Interjections

In a safe classroom environment, EFL students can practice interruptions in semi-spontaneous roleplays. As a full-class activity, one student gives a speech or shares a lengthy opinion while the other students continually interrupt by asking questions or heckling (either nonverbally or verbally). Stopping briefly, the student in a speaker role acknowledges the interruption nonverbally or verbally (e.g., Yeah, true), answers the question, and then continues speaking (Rodomanchenko, 2014). To facilitate this roleplaying activity, give each student a card with a specific role. The instructions for these roles can be as follows: 

• Interrupt others with brief intrusive interjections. 

• Ignore interruptions and continue talking. 

• Backchannel to encourage others to speak. 

Adapt this activity for diverse topics and, also, to meet the distinct ages, backgrounds, and needs of your students. 

Recognizing Politeness Norms 

The politeness norms for interrupting conversations are culturally bound. Because of this, EFL learners are often challenged at recognizing politeness strategies in English and might use a strategy that is inappropriate for a given situation (Cohen, 1966, as cited in Thornbury & Slade, 2007). Two culture-bound examples from my own EFL classes are as follows:

• My students from Russia are accustomed to taking long turns in their first language without being interrupted (which is considered rude in their culture) and thus refrain from interrupting others. 

• My students from Morocco and Saudi Arabia openly voice their opinions by frequently interrupting others and are not offended when being interrupted. 

To help my EFL students understand differing norms, I have students examine cultural differences of politeness for interrupting conversations. When all students in a class are from the same culture, I have them compare cultural differences between Britain and the United States. When the students in a class are from different cultures, I have them share their own cultural norms for interrupting conversations and then plot these norms along a value line for specific contexts as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Value Line for Cultural Differences of Politeness Norms When Interrupting

After creating this value line of cultural norms for interrupting conversations, my students participate in an activity such as Crowd Reactions for informal contexts and Game Interruptions for business contexts (Keller & Warner, 1988). In these activities, students initially brainstorm opposite views about a controversial issue and identify phrases for agreeing and disagreeing. After this initial preparation, a student who strongly favors an issue explains her perspective. The other students listen attentively and, while respecting the speaker’s cultural norms, interrupt her by using functional phrases to agree or disagree.

Pausing and Backchanneling 

Pausing and backchanneling are essential for maintaining a conversation (Thornbury & Slade, 2007). They are also culture specific. My Italian and Saudi Arabian students use shorter pauses between turns to maintain a constant flow. My Chinese and Taiwanese students use longer inter-turn pauses, which, to others, appear to break the flow. I have my students watch movies and talk shows to observe pausing and backchanneling among speakers from the same culture and from different cultures. When sharing their observational discoveries in groups, students from the culture represented in a movie (or talk show) act as experts on that culture’s conversation elements. This activity raises student awareness of the role played by culture for managing a conversation and for interrupting.

In this chapter, you learned about conversational elements, the types of interruptions that occur in conversations, and ways to use English interjections. You also learned how instructional strategies can help EFL students incorporate interjections to facilitate conversational flow.

Several key concepts related to using interjections are as follows:

• Being fluent in English does not presuppose knowing how to handle interjections. 

• Interjections are an indispensable part of our everyday communication; yet their explicit use is not included in many textbooks. 

• Interjections are culture-specific and thus depend on the context of the conversation.

• Implicit rules underlie turn-taking and the use of interjections in authentic conversations.

• Students can learn how to use interjections through specific instructional strategies.

• Roleplaying in a classroom’s safe environment is instrumental for students to practice using interjections and responding to interruptions so that they will be prepared for doing this in real-world conversations.

Based on your new knowledge about interjections, answer these questions:

1. Is it acceptable in your culture’s academic and professional context to interrupt others? How is this done? Do the strategies we use in our L1 differ from those in L2?

2. Do interjections hinder or support productive conversations? Think of advantages and disadvantages from interrupting others.

3. What does the way that people interrupt each other tell us about their context, culture, and willingness to participate in a specific conversation?

To practice what you have learned about interjections, do the following:

1. While having everyday conversations in your first and second languages, make a mental note of how prone you are to interrupt others. Note specific contexts and, also, the strategies you use in each language to cope with interjections.

2. Watch live interviews with people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Note the way they interrupt each other and deal with interjections. 

3. Have a round-table discussion with your peers on a controversial issue (e.g., censorship). Record your discussion. When later replaying the discussion, note the frequency and quality of interjections at the beginning of the discussion and then later when it becomes more intense. Identify the strategies you used for dealing with interjections.

To expand your knowledge about interjections, visit these websites:

• Arguments in education and interjections in argumentation. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10000955/1/Andrews2009Importance%28lecture%29 

• Interruptions and cognitive load theory. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211949320300156 

• Specific expressions in video clips. https://youglish.com/ 

• Teaching speaking for interaction and transactional purposes. https://www.professorjackrichards.com/teaching-speaking-interactional-versus-transactional-purposes 

Ideas for interactive conversations are also offered in the following chapters of this book:

Chapter 9 Empowering Adults for Autonomous Learning by M. Zalimben

Chapter 13 Designing Learner-Centered Classrooms to Promote Active Learning by H. Kaiser

Chapter 22 Strengthening Communication Through Classroom Discourse by K. Buckley-Ess

Chapter 29 Using Theater to Teach English by C. Ortiz and M. Vaky

Chapter 40 Strategies to Teach Speaking by S. Spezzini

Chapter 50 Developing Intercultural Competencies by L. Rojas, J. Castañeda, and J. Mosquera 

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Rodomanchenko, A. (2014, September). From speaking micro skills to general communicative skills development: A practical approach. IATFL-TEASIG Newsletter, 56, 17-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348152550 

Schmidt, P. (2010, December). The limits of my language are the limits of my world. SIETAR Europa Journal, 4-5. http://www.agcc.de/media/Limits%20of%20my%20Language.pdf 

Thornbury, S. (2005). How to teach speaking. Pearson.

Thornbury, S., & Slade, D. (2007) Conversation: From description to pedagogy. Cambridge.

Aida Rodomanchenko is an Associate Professor at the Higher School of Economics (HSE) in Moscow, Russia. Aida is an item writer for the Unified National Exam in English, an examiner for Cambridge English Speaking, and an expert on Russian Council EFL Competitions. She has received numerous awards such as Best HSE Teacher Award, the IATEFL and Trinity College Language Examinations Scholarship, and International Visitor Leadership sponsored by the State Department of the United States. Her primary areas of interest are intercultural communication, language assessment, English teaching for young learners, and development of speaking through content-language integrated learning and computer-assisted language learning. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6545-8256 

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: arodomanchenko@hse.ru

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