Carla Beatriz Fernández

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch12  

ABSTRACT

Evidence exists regarding potential benefits to language learners from explicit instruction, and findings from emerging literature highlight the benefits from implicit instruction. Explicit instruction provides learners with guided, intentional, and cognitively aware activities for using a target language, which includes the explanation of rules, structures, and meanings. Implicit instruction immerses learners in a target language, thus providing them with opportunities to learn about structure and meaning in their own way and at their own pace. When explicit instruction and implicit instruction are effectively combined, this taps into two complementary, cognitive mechanisms and leads to enhanced language acquisition. In this chapter, you will learn about implementing classroom activities that combine explicit and implicit learning, thereby maximizing benefits for language learners and ensuring their success with second language acquisition. 

Keywords: second language acquisition, explicit learning, explicit instruction, implicit learning, implicit instruction, cognitive mechanisms

How to cite this chapter: 

Fernández, C. (2023). Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 157-165). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch12

INTRODUCTION

Teaching a new language involves several aspects that instructors need to consider for ensuring learner success. Of utmost importance is how instruction is provided. On the one hand, explicit instruction consists of learning opportunities that focus on students acquiring knowledge through guided, intentional, and cognitively aware activities with examples and resources for learning targeted rules (Hulstijn, 2005). On the other hand, implicit instruction consists of learning opportunities that focus on students acquiring knowledge through exposure (without stated or guided intent or conscious effort) rather than through guided attention by the instructor (Ellis, 1994). This chapter examines explicit instruction and implicit instruction, describes aspects to be considered for including explicit and implicit learning opportunities in your language classroom, and offers suggestions for ensuring explicit and implicit learning by your language learners.

BACKGROUND

Across several decades in the English language teaching (ELT) field, a debate has taken place over explicit and implicit learning and which of these is most beneficial for students when learning (or acquiring) a new language (Berry & Dienes, 1993). As with most aspects in psycholinguistics, the answer is not simple, especially regarding second language acquisition (SLA). Successful SLA occurs as a result of effective strategies and techniques for teaching learners of varying ages and motivation, time dedicated by students to using the target language, and structural similarities between the students’ first language (L1) and second language (L2). Extensive evidence exists that successful SLA relies on both explicit learning and implicit learning (Van Patten & Smith, 2022). Because explicit and implicit learning take place through two complementary, cognitive mechanisms in the brain (Yang & Li, 2012), both mechanisms are needed to fully support the learning process and, thus, ensure effective SLA. Of great importance is strong evidence showing that implicit learning opportunities are essential if our goal is to develop the neural structures needed for effective SLA and, thus, facilitate reaching a high level of competence in the L2 (Morgan-Short et al., 2012). 

Based on these research findings, it is crucial for instructors to recognize the benefits of designing an ELT curriculum that includes classroom opportunities for both explicit learning and implicit learning. To do this effectively, instructors need to be informed about scientific findings regarding the nature of language acquisition, particularly as it pertains to explicit and implicit learning. After reaching a better understanding of how to incorporate both types of learning in your classroom, you will be better prepared to provide appropriate experiences and opportunities (explicit and implicit) for students to successfully acquire English. To maximize the benefits from providing both explicit instruction and implicit instruction in your ELT classroom, keep yourself informed about evolving research findings, maintain ongoing communication with colleagues and supervisors, and incorporate the following dimensions and applications.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

To prepare for including explicit instruction and implicit instruction in your ELT classroom, further your knowledge about the following:

Learning Opportunities for Explicit Learning and Implicit Learning in SLA

Provide opportunities in your ELT classroom for both explicit learning and implicit learning. Consider including some direct instruction (i.e., explicit), often viewed as traditional teaching. Also include some unstructured experiences in authentic real-life situations, which can go beyond the textbook and, thus, provide implicit learning opportunities. For example, have students watch a movie or documentary without captions or converse freely with peers, guests, and experts—either in person or virtually. These experiences and conversations tend to be student-centered learning opportunities for actual practice that can lead students toward implicitly acquiring knowledge. After participating in these opportunities for implicit learning, students can combine their implicitly learned knowledge with knowledge that they learn through explicit instruction (which can occur either before or after the implicit learning opportunities). 

Many variations exist for implementing classroom opportunities that include both explicit and implicit learning. However, of great importance is recognizing that no single recipe exists for how best to support all students with successful SLA. In many ways, this recognition might provide instructors (and ELT institutions) with the freedom to experiment among various combinations of explicit learning and implicit learning for effectively promoting SLA. Such freedom is key in the ELT field given that our language learners represent a myriad of individual differences, come from a wide range of previous experiences with the L2, and might have experienced different opportunities with explicit and implicit learning (Lengkanawati, 2012).

The Implicit Learning of L1

Infants acquire language mostly through implicit learning (Perruchet & Pacton, 2006). They are exposed to language without any particular intent or guided attention to specific rules and structures. This is not surprising given our innate human ability to identify patterns in language. In other words, babies are born with the ability to learn a language and internalize its rules through innate and subconscious learning (Christiansen, 2019). This is how they, as L1 learners, keep track of the distributional aspects of that language to comprehend and then construct their internalized grammar. The way that babies learn L1 is different from SLA in important ways. For example, to support SLA, we must consider individual differences among L2 learners, such as their age at initial exposure to the L2 and their learning styles and preferences (DeKeyser 2012). Consequently, although attempts have been made to support SLA by replicating the implicit learning of L1 in L2 settings, such settings tend to be more effective for SLA (especially among older learners) if complemented by some type of explicit learning (Lichtman, 2013). 

Insights from Scientific Findings on Explicit and Implicit Learning to Support SLA

For language instruction to be effective, we—as language teachers—need to remain updated about emerging research findings, especially when transitioning from being a novice teacher to an experienced educator. New scientific insights are constantly being generated in the fields of cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and psycho- and neurolinguistics. Such findings can serve to guide instruction with the goal of emulating actual learning mechanisms in the brain (Lichtman, 2013; Morgan-Short, 2012; Yang & Li, 2012). This is of vital importance for SLA because such cognitive mechanisms are inherently different for explicit learning and implicit learning. Consequently, to ensure meaningful learning, we need to implement classroom opportunities for both types of learning (explicit and implicit). By combining explicit and implicit instruction in our lessons, we can embark on an integrative pathway for supporting SLA. This integrative pathway leads to explicit learning and implicit learning, which, in turn, can lead to improved outcomes in learning a new language. The improved ability of language learners to communicate indicates that they are gaining competence and advancing from their previous language level. Based on these improved outcomes, the combined use of explicit and implicit instruction is becoming increasingly more common in our language classrooms. This is further supported by new and emerging advances regarding our understanding of the brain mechanisms needed to support successful SLA. 

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

To incorporate both explicit and implicit learning opportunities in your classroom, consider the following suggestions:

Use Explicit Instruction for Teaching Grammatical Structures

Explicit instruction can support SLA in many ways, such as for helping students learn grammatical structures with highly irregular forms. However, although such instruction is explicit, this does not mean that you should simply tell students everything at the beginning of a lesson. Instead, implement several activities that are designed for intentionally guiding learners to become cognitively aware and that focus their attention on the targeted grammatical structures. Following is an example of explicit instruction for helping language learners understand and use English past tense forms (regular and irregular).

For the explicit instruction of past tense verb forms, start by placing students in groups and have them locate the verbs in a written text (which necessarily includes many verbs in the past tense). Go from group to group and make sure that your students are successfully identifying verbs and doing the subsequent tasks in this lesson. You may think that having students do an exploration is not explicit learning. However, this task is the first in a multi-step lesson about past tense verb forms and fits the definition of explicit learning, that of students participating in guided, intentional, and cognitively aware activities supported by examples and resources (Hulstijn, 2005). 

For the next step in this explicit lesson, have each student group classify their identified verbs into sets with similarities based on criteria that the group determines (i.e., not with criteria that you, as their teacher, pre-established). Each group then identifies a structural pattern evidenced in each of the verb sets they created. While circulating among groups, ask questions for guiding students in how they are thinking about these verbs and classifying them into sets. Bring students back to a full class activity where each group shares their verb sets and describes the patterns that they identified. Finally, lead the class with discussing and comparing these sets and patterns. Here is where you, as the teacher, can directly explain the past tense rules (if you wish to do so).

Although the exploratory phase of this past tense lesson might take time, it is time that is well spent. When students explore and classify verb forms through this explicitly guided lesson, they create a knowledge base for productively receiving your subsequent explanation of past tense forms. They also assume a type of ownership for their growing verb knowledge. End your lesson with students working in pairs to practice what they have learned explicitly. Guided practice can consist of students working together to fill in blanks, select multiple choice responses, and do matching activities. Consider having students share and explain their reasons for having made choices in this guided practice exercises. Students then do guided conversations for using the past tense verb forms and, also, open-ended conversations for describing events and actions that occurred in the past (e.g., yesterday, last week).

In conjunction with your explicit explanation of past tense verb forms, consider providing an explicit explanation of how the irregular past tense forms of Modern English (16th century to present) are remnants from regular past tense forms of Old English (5th to 13th century). Explain that today’s irregular verbs did not undergo (for some unknown reason) a regularization process that historically led to today’s regular verbs. Language learners are often fascinated with this historical nugget about the English language. Not only does this historical explanation raise their overall language awareness, but it can also influence how these learners view you and your knowledge about the English language. Perhaps for the first time ever, someone (you) has responded to their inquisitive inquiry about irregular English forms (“Why?”) by offering a concrete reason rather than the common, unenlightened reply (“Because it’s an exception”). For some learners, your explicit explanation regarding the history of the English language helps make English come alive (rather than being just an object to study). Such explicit learning might even serve to personalize a student’s language learning journey. 

Provide Opportunities for the Implicit Learning of Complex Topics

After introducing a complex topic, provide implicit learning opportunities for students to use their newly acquired knowledge in real-life situations. Such opportunities can be free flowing conversations about interesting topics that take place among peers or invited guests (either in person or virtually). These real-life conversations provide an opportunity for students to engage with complex topics in a more naturalistic manner. Such implicitly based learning opportunities can be creatively designed to fully engage all students. 

A good way to engage students in the implicit learning of the English language is to introduce critical topics that school-aged students are studying in their other classes (e.g., science or social studies) or that adult students face in their everyday lives. Caring for the environment might be a topic being studied in a science class and, also, one that can be of interest to adult learners. First, divide students into pairs or groups where they share their personal experiences on this topic. Students then read short internet clippings, perhaps in the news feeds on their phones, and then view a short video clip. Based on authentic communication mediums used by L1 peers of their age group, students create a communication blurb about this environmental issue. Then, they invite one or more people to meet with their class (perhaps virtually) for authentic real-life conversations. These open-ended, student-driven activities can lead to the implicit learning of L2 grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Also consider introducing other types of complex topics such as political trends, ideologies, and philosophies as well as sports, movie stars, and new electronic devices. 

Create Opportunities for Combining Explicit Learning and Implicit Learning

As explained earlier, opportunities that combine explicit learning and implicit learning can support learning in different ways. Explicit and implicit learning tap into complementary, cognitive mechanisms. Consequently, these two types of learning are not mutually exclusive. Both are needed to maximize student learning. Because of this, be sure to design your lessons by including opportunities for both types of learning—explicit and implicit. For example, plan the first half of your class for explicit learning and the second half for implicit learning. When following this lesson design, start by implementing a series of activities that focus your students’ attention on structures and rules (e.g., past tense verb forms) to support their explicit learning of these structures. Then, provide implicit learning opportunities for students to use these structures to explore a topic of interest (e.g., caring for the environment). Choose readings and video clips with environmental events that have already taken place (i.e., past tense). By working with these materials, students become implicitly engaged with the past tense and, thus, use this tense beyond the earlier activities that focused on explicit learning. When combined, explicit and implicit learning opportunities allow for students to share their reactions by participating in discussions and/or writing their thoughts. However, the former (explicit) is guided and focused while the latter (implicit) is mainly unstructured. 

Another consideration when combining explicit and implicit learning opportunities is students’ preferences and learning styles. Some students might be more inclined towards explicit learning and others towards implicit learning. By recognizing and discussing these differences in class, you can introduce students to the neuroscience of SLA and explain how explicit learning and implicit learning work together to help them learn. By knowing this, students may be more prone to becoming engaged with both types of learning opportunities.

In this chapter, you learned about explicit learning and implicit learning, how each is processed by different brain mechanisms, and how both are needed to fully support SLA. You learned how to provide classroom opportunities for explicit learning and implicit learning to support your students in learning and acquiring a new language. You also learned that, after an appropriate curriculum has been designed with explicit and implicit learning, it should be constantly updated in light of new information. Finally, you became aware that the future is bright when instructors bridge from basic science to actual practice, thus ensuring student success in SLA.

Here are some key concepts about explicit learning and implicit learning for enhancing SLA:

• Explicit learning requires an intent together with cognitive guidance and effort.

• Implicit learning does not require conscious attention nor intent.

• Applied concepts in real world settings are opportunities that allow students to implement what they have learned in natural settings.

Based on what you have learned about explicit and implicit learning in SLA, provide meaningful responses to these questions:

1. How can SLA be supported in a more innovative way?

2. What are some aspects of implicit learning to be taken into consideration?

3. Are opportunities for explicit learning and implicit learning mutually exclusive? Why?

To practice what you have learned about how explicit learning and implicit learning can both support SLA, do the following:

1. Create a T-chart with one column for explicit learning in SLA and another column for implicit learning in SLA. In each of these columns, list characteristics and benefits.

2. Describe an action plan to implement learning opportunities in the classroom that support SLA through explicit learning and implicit learning.

To learn more about explicit learning and implicit learning and how these relate to SLA, explore these websites:

• Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. https://www.ascd.org/resources 

• Global Research Anthologies. https://www.igi-global.com 

• Implicit Language Learning. https://www.brainscape.com/academy/implicit-language-learning/  

• Implicit Learning. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/implicit-learning  

• Papers on Implicit Learning and Explicit Learning. https://sites.google.com/site/finalresearchpapers/implicit-and-explicit-learning 

Aspects about explicit learning and implicit learning in SLA are also addressed in other chapters of this book:

Chapter 9 Empowering Adults for Autonomous Learning by M. Zalimben

Chapter 10 Building Language Awareness by H. Lalwani

Chapter 11 Using Social Media to Enhance Language Awareness by S. Terol and J. Amarilla

Chapter 14 Promoting Thinking Skills to Enhance Language Learning by K. Sandi

Chapter 15 Exploring Meaning Through Translanguaging Practices by K. Liu and J. Choi

Chapter 26 Counterbalancing Content and Language Integrated Learning by A. Roca

Chapter 34 Alternative Approaches to English Language Teaching by G. Díaz Maggioli

Chapter 38 A Socio-Cultural Approach to Teaching Grammar by C. Davies, J. Prado, and J. Austin  

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DeKeyser, R. (2012). Interactions between individual differences, treatments, and structures in SLA. Language Learning, 62(2), 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00712.x

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Yang, J., & Li, P. (2012). Brain networks of explicit and implicit learning. PLoS ONE, 7(8), e42993. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042993.

Carla Beatriz Fernandez earned a doctorate in cognitive psychology (neurosciences) and language sciences from Pennsylvania State University (USA) and held a post-doctoral position at Duke University (USA) in the psychology of language development among children with and without cochlear implants. Carla teaches psycholinguistics at the Universidad Nacional de Asuncion, Paraguay, and is the academic director of Universidad Comunera (UCOM), where she is establishing a research center for the neurosciences. Her line of research focuses on the neural basis of language acquisition and processing by using methods such as encephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2337-6460 

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: carlafg389@gmail.com

Cover Photo by Leonardo Toshiro on Unsplash