Mónica Gandolfo

Beatriz Damiani

Laura Caperochipe

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch07

ABSTRACT

Teaching English to young learners can be challenging, especially when contact hours are limited and instructional resources are scarce. Based on our combined 80+ years of teaching English, we feel that focusing attention on meaning greatly enhances learning. As early childhood educators, we design our lessons to be highly meaningful for young learners. In this chapter, you will learn how to communicate information to young learners and how to use strategies for helping these learners make meaning of new language. You will learn about the need to identify local context and learner culture and to connect these to your lessons. You will also learn how the linguistic features in your instructional materials can facilitate learning and how your responses within learning contexts can impact your learners’ language production. 

Keywords: young learners, teaching English, meaning making, early childhood educators, instructional materials, communicating information

How to cite this chapter: 

Gandolfo, M., Damiani, B. & Caperochipe, L. (2023). Embracing Young Learners. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 100-114). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch07

INTRODUCTION

What does it mean to embrace young learners while teaching them English? What is of greatest importance to help young learners feel successful and not frustrated? To prevent learners from feeling frustrated, we must help them understand what we are teaching. Frustration, especially at early stages of language learning, can lead to a learner’s self-concept of being unable to learn. 

Several years ago, we told a fifth-grade class that we were going to read a story. They looked happy. Using his first language (L1), one child asked, “In English?” When we answered “Yes,” he replied sadly, again in L1, “Then I won't be able to understand.” Years later, we conducted research to explore older students' reluctance to learn English as their second or subsequent language (L2). Overwhelmingly, their reason was “I don´t understand.” Since then, we have always placed meaning at the center of our teaching.  

Background

The early inclusion of English in elementary schools has become a worldwide trend. Proponents perceive English as offering lifelong benefits and, also, an early start as being advantageous. However, evidence does not consistently garner positive outcomes (Singleton & Pfenninger, 2018). We risk delivering lessons that are meaningless if our students are in geographic areas distanced from Anglophone communities, especially if they have limited or no contact with English outside of class. Such is the case in many Latin American countries where the teaching of English has been mandated in elementary schools (Miller et al., 2018); yet contact hours are often insufficient and resources are often inadequate. 

For learners to be successful at learning, we must attend to the learning conditions for diverse groups in our classroom and to the socio-cultural and socio-affective characteristics of these learners. Effective methodology requires recognizing our learners’ cultural identity, starting with their prior knowledge, and building on their existing language repertoire. Only in this way will classroom experiences be meaningful for our young learners.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

Texts and Contexts 

In our everyday lives, we experience language in various spoken texts (i.e., conversations) and written texts, which correspond to social use within specific contexts. Even single sounds when uttered in context are part of dialogic events with social functions, such as babies cooing and caretakers responding. Given the importance of this language-context relationship, English learners need L2 texts framed in known social contexts to make meaning and, by doing so, understand the new language. Meanings that might not be understood in isolation can often be understood in context.

If newly presented language is disconnected from the local context, it might have no meaning for students or it might be incorrectly interpreted. However, if this new language is introduced in a known context, it has a much better chance of being understood and correctly used. 

To introduce new language structures to young children, establish a context by showing pictures of children who are about the same age as your learners and who are doing something with which your learners can identify. For example, here is a picture of two children at a school fair.

When using this type of picture to teach, follow these steps: 

1. Carefully examine the picture. Notice setting and gestures. Does the picture help to understand the language that might appear in the bubbles? For example, which of the following best fits with this picture? 

a. S1: Would you like some cotton candy? S2: Yes, please!

b. S1: I like cotton candy! S2: Yummy! Me too!

2. If you have access to audio, help your learners analyze how tone, pitch, volume, noise, and silence (pauses) can contribute to understanding the message. Guide them with using such cues to anticipate the meaning before looking at the written words. 

3. Pay attention to the written cues in speech bubbles such as words (e.g., cognates), punctuation, capitalization, and spacing. Guide students in using these to understand.

4. Connect the content to learners’ culture and experiences as indicated in Principle 1 (Know your students) of The 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners (Short et al., 2018). The more you know about students’ families, social-ethnic backgrounds, and former schooling, the more you can adjust your teaching to meet their needs (Gay, 2018). 

Learning through culturally familiar contexts offers many advantages (Sheridan et al., 2016). Lessons should include locally relevant content (Seligson, as interviewed in Nobre & Scholes, 2020). Start with content closest to students’ reality. If using materials far from their reality, reflect with students on differences and similarities between their lives and those of the characters and contexts portrayed in these materials. Use an intercultural perspective to guide your students’ reflection, that of observing differences based on a deep respect for all cultures rather than placing one culture hierarchically above the other. Consider doing such reflections in the learners’ L1, especially during early stages of L2 learning.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary is again being viewed as a major contributor in the L2 learning process. In other words, to communicate meaning, vocabulary is seen as driving grammar rather than grammar driving vocabulary (Cameron, 2001). 

If your weekly instructional time consists of only two or three 40-minute classes, minimize the number of new words introduced each week so that these words can remain in your students’ long-term memory. In this type of situation, students can usually learn six or seven new words per week, depending on whether the words represent common items (cat/gato), are cognates (banana/banana), or have similar syllable structures (cotton candy/algodón de azúcar). If not, reduce the number of words and be sure to provide multiple opportunities to practice (see Appendix). 

If the coursebook introduces too many words for just one week of class, select words from that list to integrate with words from the previous week and, also, to recycle with words to be learned the following week. Use this to advance from week to week. If too many words are introduced at once, few words will be learned, and the learners might become frustrated.

If using your own materials and selecting your own vocabulary, consider the following:

• Increase the number of cognates, as they are of great help to speakers of related languages (Seligson, as interviewed in Nobre & Scholes, 2020). Cognates offer an L1-L2 connection that reduces the learning load. By learning to identify cognates when listening and reading, learners are able to understand texts more quickly and more thoroughly.

• Prioritize your context. Increase genuine opportunities for meaningful interactions by having students initially talk about their surroundings. For instance, have students in a rural school talk about farm animals and those in an urban school talk about pets. 

Grammar 

Teaching grammar from explicit rules does not work with young learners because of how they perceive patterns within chunks (e.g., “What do you like?” and “I like cotton candy.”). For these learners, a chunk is several words used together as a single unit of meaning (Cameron, 2001). Later, upon noticing that these chunks can appear in other instances, learners begin dividing chunks into separate parts and using them in other phrases (e.g., “Do you like cotton candy?” and “I don't like it.”). When doing so, they show an awareness that “like” carries the basic meaning and demonstrate an ability to combine “like” with other words to express their own ideas.

After your students understand the meaning, guide them in isolating the chunk from the rest of the text. By doing so, children can then focus on its form. Help children visualize the components of this chunk and its meaning by using a pictorial organizer such as shown here.

Learners’ Linguistic Repertoire

Using languages from your learners’ linguistic repertoires positively affects their willingness and motivation to learn and, in turn, supports how well they can learn (Ortega, 2019). Taking advantage of learners’ linguistic repertoire is especially important in the expanded English-teaching contexts of the 21st century. However, if such contexts offer little exposure to English outside of class, be sure to maximize opportunities through your lessons for learners to use English in class (Nation, 2003).

Affective Aspects

Affective aspects of language learning have a strong impact on cognitive aspects (Arnold, 2011).  To support young learners with learning language, strengthen the affective aspects by being friendly, establishing a low-stress atmosphere, demonstrating positive expectations, providing constructive feedback, and making sure learners understand. This helps your learners feel confident and, in turn, more willing to participate. Always demonstrate an honest, accepting, caring, and encouraging attitude toward all learners (beware of any possible bias!) and toward their attempts at producing English.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

Create Connections With Your Learners

Create connections with your learners. Establish meaningful communication with a learner by mentioning minor changes such as a recent haircut or a new pencil case. Are all of your learners the same? Do some look different? Do some seem sad, bored, or angry? If so, show that you care by helping them express what is wrong (if they so desire). If you wish to dig deeper, consider using the children’s L1. 

Involve all students, not just those who volunteer. Although calling on volunteers may occur naturally, it does not support teaching and learning. In a non-intrusive manner, identify reluctant students and encourage them to participate. Try involving shy students by standing next to them so that they can whisper in your ear. When students perceive their environment as being non-threatening, they are more likely to participate. 

Teach Language From Texts 

Teach language by using text. When teaching young children, use text from a picture. In the following example, “I like” is taught as a chunk so children can grasp its meaning as a whole. However, before focusing on vocabulary and grammar, make sure your learners understand the context of the selected picture. Do this by having a conversation with the class as shown below.

Teacher (T): Look! This is Luca. This is Dante. ¿Dónde están? (Where are they?)

Students (Ss): En una fiesta en la escuela. (At a school fair)

T: Is Dante happy? (gesture)

Ss: Yes!!!!

T: ¿Por qué les parece que está contento? (Why do you think he’s happy?)

Ss: Porque está comiendo algodón de azúcar. (Because he’s eating cotton candy)

T: Yes! Cotton candy! (You can invite children to say it). Mmm . . . I like cotton candy! (licking your lips) ¿Qué estará diciendo? (What do you think he’s saying?)

Ss ¡Que le gusta! (That he likes it!)

To expand this pattern, students can say brand names or local foods in L1 (e.g., “I like chipa guasu.”). This allows them to participate in meaningful practice without needing many new words. Later, children respond “Me, too” if they like what classmates say and can reconstruct meaning. (See Appendix for other examples.)

Use English in the Classroom 

When using English in a classroom, guarantee that your message is understood. If learners seem scared or uncertain about English, start in L1 and gradually increase L2. Guarantee learners’ understanding of English by staying within the here and now (i.e., present time and place). Give instructions by stressing key words, pointing to things, and pausing to check that all students can see and that all are following the lesson. Only then, move on to the next part of your lesson. 

Constantly recycle words and phrases being taught. After students have learned these aspects, introduce new aspects of the language. If too many words and expressions are introduced at the same time, students will not be able to remember everything and might not feel successful. In a Teacher Development Webinar (2022), Ur explained how vocabulary can support speaking in several different activities that are easily adaptable to other contexts.

Use Routines, Songs, Chants, and Games

Incorporate routines, songs, chants, and games within your daily lessons to provide multiple opportunities for learners to practice new language repeatedly and naturally in contextually appropriate situations. This is particularly important for young children. Here are some examples.

• Establish daily routines. For example, use a weather chart with pictures that guide students in learning about weather and using weather-related vocabulary. They will soon be able to respond to daily questions: T: “How’s the weather today?” Ss: “Cloudy.” For students who can read, use the common routine of a poster entitled “Today is” with days of the week. They will gradually be able to produce full sentences (e.g., “Today is Monday”).

• Sing short songs and incorporate chants into lessons. Use a loud voice if students seem drowsy and a soft voice if they seem overly excited. Make sure all students are singing or trying to sing. Make a special effort to encourage reluctant learners to participate.

• Select games that engage young learners. Of great importance is selecting games that recycle vocabulary and language patterns. Stop the game when students are still engaged, rather than continuing until they are tired or overly excited. 

Use English Beyond the Classroom

Help students maximize their learning of English by encouraging them to use English outside the classroom. Here are two examples.

• Provide parents with simple songs and nursery rhymes by posting them on a digital classroom platform or via social messaging. Parents and older family members can encourage children to sing songs and nursery rhymes at home. This helps them retain vocabulary and fluency. 

• Encourage older students to use language learning apps (e.g., Duolingo). This will help them learn independently. 

Reflect and Modify 

Reflect constantly on your teaching and your students’ learning. If something works for you and your class, continue doing it. If something is not working well, modify it or switch to something else. If an activity does not fit well to your context, set it aside. 

In this chapter, you learned about teaching and embracing young children. You learned to focus on meaningful learning by attending to learners’ linguistic repertoires and their affective needs and by using context-relevant materials. You learned to incorporate texts, stories, routines, songs, chants, and games to maximize the learners’ use of English in the classroom and thus enhance their learning. Now it’s time to be creative and have fun!

Mónica Gandolfo has been a teacher educator for over 30 years. She has taught materials design at the Universidad Cámara Argentina de Comercio y Servicios, conducted research at the Universidad de Buenos Aires, and worked in the additional languages section at the Dirección General Escuela de Maestros, Ministerio de Educación, Buenos Aires. Monica has also lectured locally and abroad on methodological issues and has co-authored three coursebook series, two for Pearson-Tinta Fresca and one for Macmillan. Her main interests are the teaching of English in challenging contexts and the study of lexis-related issues for comprehension and production.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3023-9225 

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: monica.gandolfo@gmail.com

Beatriz Damiani was an English teacher and teacher educator for over 30 years. After retiring and shortly after finishing this chapter, Beatriz unexpectedly passed away. During her exemplary career, she lectured throughout Argentina on teaching English as a foreign language. She co-authored two coursebook series for Pearson-Tinta Fresca and another for Macmillan, including teacher guides for all books in these three series. She also developed curriculum and designed materials for teaching English in rural schools. Her main interests were the teaching of English at schools in under-resourced contexts and for specific purposes at secondary technical schools. 

Laura Caperochipe has taught English for over 20 years to young learners at primary schools in under-resourced contexts of Buenos Aires, and she has worked in the reading comprehension program at the Universidad de Buenos Aires. Laura has also co-authored two coursebook series, one for Pearson-Tinta Fresca and another for Macmillan. Her main interests are the teaching of English in under-resourced schools, the design of new materials, and the use of stories in the classroom.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0050-6364 

Cover Photo by Jerry Wang on Unsplash