Rocio Mazzoleni

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch19 

ABSTRACT

Language educators are often asked if students with learning difficulties can learn a new language. People who pose this question seem to assume that these students will become so frustrated when exposed to another language that it would be better for them not to be placed in language classrooms. Fortunately, all students—including those with learning difficulties—can learn new languages within inclusive learning environments. In this chapter, you will explore how the field of English language teaching can offer powerful tools to maximize learning opportunities for all students. You will learn about choosing appropriate materials and adapting lessons to address a student’s learning difficulty. You will also learn about assessing the second language development of students with learning difficulties. Finally, you will learn how to build confidence among students with learning difficulties and include these students rather than exclude them. 

Keywords: inclusive education, inclusive practices, learning difficulties, language learners, appropriate teaching materials, adapting lessons

How to cite this chapter: 

Mazzoleni, R. (2023). Incorporating Inclusive Education Practices in ELT. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 235-244). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch19

INTRODUCTION

As educators, we are entrusted with creating inclusive educational environments for all students, which necessarily includes students with different strengths and weaknesses as well as diverse learning difficulties. Similarly, we need to incorporate these inclusive educational practices in our English language teaching (ELT) classrooms where students may have diverse abilities and preferences for learning English. As of the beginning of their language learning journey, students need to experience English in ways that positively foster a desire and an ability to learn. We can ensure positive experiences for all students in our ELT classrooms by using inclusive practices.

To determine the best way to incorporate inclusive practices, we must first establish a basic understanding about learning processes and learning differences as well as about differences in languages and language learning. We must realize that, although everyone’s brain has similar structures, people learn languages differently. We must also be aware that some learning differences are, in fact, learning difficulties. To guide us in reaching these goals, this chapter examines learning differences and difficulties among students in ELT classrooms, identifies common difficulties observed in such classrooms, and explains ways to assess these learners’ language skills. This chapter also provides suggestions on how to help students with learning difficulties (diagnosed and undiagnosed) for learning new concepts and new languages.  

BACKGROUND

A learning difficulty can be defined as a “disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to think, speak, spell or do mathematical calculations” (Alfonso & Flanagan, 2018, p. 53). We can further define a learning difficulty as a “type of special needs, such as reading, writing, spelling, mathematics, etc.” (NHS Data Model and Dictionary, 2022, para. 1). This type of learning difficulty can be specific or multiple and at a moderate, severe, or profound level. 

Learning difficulties are not usually related to a cognitive ability or capacity for language learning. If English language learners are diagnosed with a learning difficulty, they are usually still able to learn English (Perras, 2014). Their learning difficulty means that their brains are wired differently, and they will therefore learn differently. 

As ELT educators, we need to first reflect on our own attitudes, values, and behaviors regarding language differences vis-à-vis learning difficulties. We then need to identify each student’s strengths and weaknesses while, of course, recognizing that language-related differences do not necessarily represent learning difficulties (Kormos, 2017). However, if we suspect that a student might be overly challenged at learning English and perhaps exhibiting signs of a learning difficulty, we should share our observation with a school professional (e.g., psychologist). After gathering additional information, the school psychologist will share our mutual concern with the student’s parents. Then, together, we work as a team to define this difficulty, set goals, implement actions, and provide needed support to the student so that the desired learning can take place. By working as a team, we can usually reach favorable outcomes.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

When we suspect that a student might have a learning difficulty (though yet undiagnosed), we need to provide additional support in our English classroom so that this student can make optimal progress. We can do this by taking the following into consideration.

Possible Signs of Learning Difficulties

As teachers, we need to ensure that children can access learning in an inclusive and equitable learning climate (Read, 2020). The sooner we suspect or detect possible signs of learning difficulties, the sooner we can use inclusive instructional practices to meet our students’ learning needs (Bender, 2012). If possible, we should do this before an official diagnosis of learning difficulties so that, by immediately meeting the needs of our students, we can prevent them from feeling frustrated or developing low self-esteem. The best way to start is by asking key questions of parents when they first enroll their child in school or at an ELT institute. Their responses provide valuable insights for later identifying possible signs of learning difficulties that might arise as children progress to higher grade or language levels and are therefore expected to use advanced vocabulary and more complex language structures. Through inclusive practices provided by teachers, these students learn to cope with their learning difficulties. By preparing lessons to meet the needs of these students, we can mitigate the potentially negative effects of their learning difficulties and give them strategies to be successful at learning.

Early childhood educators are in a privileged position to perceive possible signs of learning difficulties when children are still young. If teaching the English language, these educators observe and assess students when learning and using English to listen, speak, read, and write. If teaching other subjects, educators observe and assess how students learn content through their first language (L1) or second language (L2), such as when trying to make connections between previous knowledge and new knowledge. In their lessons, educators adjust materials, activities, and assessments to better meet learning needs of students experiencing learning difficulties, whether diagnosed or not. In other words, we should not wait until learning difficulties are diagnosed before adapting our instruction and providing inclusive practices. 

When learning difficulties are initially suspected, ask parents about the process undertaken by their child when learning to walk (Berk, 2013). This is important because young children express themselves through their body (Sanchez, 2001). In other words, they enact in their body what is being learned in the brain (Goddard, 2002). Therefore, to obtain insights to how a child’s brain is functioning, ask parents a few questions such as the following: 

• Did your child go through all stages for learning to walk? 

• As a baby, did your child sit before crawling and then crawl before walking? 

• After crawling, did your child pull himself/herself up on furniture?

Another question to ask parents is about the laterality exhibited by their child before starting school. Laterality is one side of the brain being dominant when doing activities. This is exhibited by preference for one side of the body, such as right-handedness versus left-handedness when throwing a ball (Sánchez et al., 2008). Laterality might also influence reading and writing (Le Bouch, 1987). 

Knowing aspects about a child from birth until starting school helps detect early signs of learning difficulties. It also helps determine whether a child is acquiring developmentally appropriate preliteracy skills. Moreover, if a child is later diagnosed as having a learning difficulty, this early information also helps identify appropriate teaching strategies in an inclusive education setting to support the child for experiencing success as a learner. 

Common Learning Difficulties in ELT Classes

Learning difficulties commonly seen in ELT classes are dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD; Hudson, 2015). Although these difficulties can overlap, each represents a different set of behaviors and abilities that can affect learning. Also common is the high end of the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), which has been referred to as Asperger’s Syndrome.

Dyslexia is characterized by difficulty with written language evidenced in reading, writing, and spelling. If students experience difficulties with L1 phonemic awareness, this might be a sign of dyslexia (Kormos, 2017). However, if English learners experience difficulties with English phonemic awareness, this might signal a language difference rather than a learning difficulty.

Dysgraphia is characterized by difficulty with writing as evidenced in spelling, poor handwriting, and putting thoughts on paper. Dyscalculia is characterized by difficulty with numbers. Dyspraxia is characterized by difficulty with movements and calculations (Hudson, 2015). Because these conditions might resemble other learning difficulties, great care is taken when trying to diagnose the exact learning difficulty.

ADHD is characterized by a short attention span and lively and impulsive behavior (Hudson, 2015). OCD is characterized by obsessions (e.g., unfounded fears) and compulsive behaviors (e.g., repetitive behavior patterns). ASD, which has different severity levels, is characterized by awkward social interactions, preoccupations with very narrow interests, and communication based on factual unimaginative speech.

After a student is referred by a teacher as possibly having a learning difficulty, the school psychologist administers several tests, preferably in a student’s L1. Based on testing outcomes, a diagnosis is reached. Sometimes this diagnosis includes two or more learning difficulties. Extreme care must be taken when testing and diagnosing L2 learners who have been referred for inappropriate behavior and problematic performance. Instead of a learning difficulty, an L2 learner’s behavior and performance could stem from L1/L2 differences or delayed second language acquisition. Some English learners might have a dual diagnosis that includes a learning difficulty and a slower rate of second language acquisition.

English Learner Behaviors With Language-Based Explanations

L2 students might exhibit behaviors that could reflect a learning difficulty among L1 students in a special education context. However, in an ELT context, these same behaviors might not reflect a learning difficulty. Instead, these L2-related behaviors could represent a language difference resulting from a slower rate of second language acquisition. Several behaviors typical of English learners and the corresponding language-based explanations are provided in Table 1.

Table 1

Behaviors of English Learners With Possible Language-Based Explanations.

Note. Adapted from “Language Acquisition Difficulty or Learning Disability? How to Differentiate and Support English Language Learners With a Learning Disability,” by C. Perras, 2014, LD@school (https://www.ldatschool.ca/language-acquisition-difficulty-or-learning-disability/).

The examples in Table 1 serve to guide us regarding other behaviors that are typical among English learners. When we observe an English learner’s behavior as not meeting expectations, we should not automatically associate that behavior with learning difficulties to be diagnosed through testing. Instead, behaviors that might resemble learning difficulties among L1 students often represent differences in rates of second language acquisition among L2 students.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

By taking a multisensory approach in our ELT classroom, we can help students who are experiencing difficulties with learning English. Multisensorial lessons are especially helpful for students with learning difficulties—even if yet undiagnosed. To help these students, incorporate physical actions, such as by having them wiggle when hearing a certain word. Also, consider using a ball in your classroom to further develop young children’s laterality, such as the eye-hand or eye-foot coordination needed to throw or kick (Sánchez et al., 2008).

Visuals that reinforce concepts and vocabulary can help all students learn but are especially helpful for students with learning difficulties. Also important for these students is joining cooperative learning groups, which should include mixed ability groups as well as leveled groups. Depending on the activity, ASD students might be unwilling to participate in groups; however, they can be supported via peer tutoring.

Of utmost importance, provide multiple opportunities for all students to use English, including those with learning difficulties. To guide language learners with expanding their L2 knowledge, expose them to English just above their current level, which is called i+1 (Krashen, 1981). However, if some language learners exhibit anxiety because of not understanding L2 at this level (i+1), help them overcome their language anxiety by using their L1 and translanguaging. 

When creating assessments for your students with learning difficulties, consider adjusting an assessment’s format and/or content. Also consider shortening an exam or perhaps assessing only certain skills. Another option would be to allow students to demonstrate content learning through their L1. For major assessments, work with the school’s professional team to ensure that your planned adjustments and inclusive practices meet institutional criteria.

To provide optimal support to English learners who have learning difficulties (diagnosed or undiagnosed), consider following these suggestions (Read, 2020):

• Ensure that each learning environment is engaging for all students while remembering that some students become easily distracted. For example, multiple wall posters are distracting to some students with learning difficulties.

• Clearly express lesson objectives, make sure outcomes are understood, and provide expectation criteria.

• Group the instructions into stages, divide each activity into simple steps, and rehearse clearly saying your instructions aloud (at home) before explaining these instructions to your students. Keep in mind that less is often better.

• Establish standard routines in your classroom.

• Differentiate instructions from tasks. Students need to understand this difference.

• Prepare your lessons to address different ways of learning.

• Concentrate on what students can do and give positive comments (rather than negative).

• Make sure that all students participate in some way.

In this chapter, you examined inclusive education practices in ELT. You learned about possible signs of learning difficulties and, also, common learning difficulties in ELT classrooms. You learned that, although certain behaviors of English learners might resemble learning difficulties, such behaviors often represent differences in rates of second language acquisition. Finally, you learned to support students with learning difficulties by taking a multisensorial approach and reinforcing concepts through cooperative learning.

Here are some key concepts about inclusive education practices:

• Establish and maintain an inclusive learning environment.

• Build positive relationships with all students, especially those with difficulties.

• Identify possible signs of learning difficulties and adjust lessons accordingly.

• Describe what you observe in the class, but do not diagnose.

• Keep yourself informed about learning difficulties but do not confuse these with delayed second language acquisition.

Based on inclusive education practices described in this chapter, answer these questions:

1. What is a learning difficulty?

2. What are the learning difficulties typically found in an ELT class?

3. What inclusive practices can we use to support English learners with learning difficulties? 

4. How should we assess English learners with learning difficulties?

To optimize your growing knowledge about inclusive education practices, do the following:

1. Engage in a self-reflection cycle and identify your attitude towards your students, especially those with learning difficulties.

2. Think of ways you can modify your lessons to make them more inclusive.

3. Create a list of techniques for assessing students with learning difficulties.

4. Talk with other professionals at your school and discuss ways to collaborate for meeting the needs of students with learning difficulties.

Additional information about inclusive education practices is provided on these webpages:

• Basics in learning disorders. https://ldaamerica.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Why-is-My-Child-Struggling-ppt.pdf 

• Identifying learning disabilities among English learners. https://youtu.be/sZVDnSIsCZw  

• Inclusive practices for English learners. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1eYksDbJ6kNH3F5KkYIWHfaORdXV8OQ8I/view?usp=sharing  

• Distinguishing language acquisition from learning disabilities. https://youtu.be/kSU2JFnv2WE 

• Relationship between laterality and reading/writing. https://reunir.unir.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/2997/Adelaida_Perez_Lopez.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y   

• Separating difference and disability. https://ldaamerica.org/lda_today/what-every-ld-educator-should-know-separating-difference-disability/  

• Separating language differences from learning disabilities. https://www.colorincolorado.org/author/dr-catherine-collier  

Aspects related to inclusive practices are also addressed in the following chapters of this book:

Chapter 4 Humanism in English Language Teaching by B. Meadows

Chapter 5 Building Relationships With Language Learners by S. Montiel

Chapter 6 Supporting Learners’ Social Emotional Learning by G. Mendoza

Chapter 10 Building Language Awareness by H. Lalwani

Chapter 12 Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition by C. Fernández

Chapter 14 Promoting Thinking Skills to Enhance Language Learning by K. Sandi

Chapter 17 Providing Feedback on Learners’ Language Output by C. Cristóful

Alfonso, V. C., & Flanagan, D. P. (Eds.). (2018). Essentials of specific learning disability identification (2nd ed.). Wiley & Sons.

Bender, W. N. (2012) Differentiating instruction for students with learning disabilities: New best practices for general and special educators (3rd ed.). Corwin.

Berk, L. E. (2013). Children’s development (9th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.

Goddard, S. (2002). Reflexes, learning, and behavior. A window into the child's mind. Fern Ridge Press.

Hudson, D. (2015). Specific learning difficulties: What teachers need to know (ED573621). ERIC; Jessica Kingsley Publishers. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573621 

Kormos, J. (2017, September). The effects of specific learning difficulties on processes of multilingual language development. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 30-44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026719051700006X

Krashen, S. (1981). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.

Le Bouch, J. (1987). El desarrollo psicomotor desde el nacimiento a los seis años: Consecuencias educativas [The psychomotor development from being born to six years old: Educational consequences]. Paidos.

NHS Data Model and Dictionary. (2022, April 26). Learning difficulty. Health and Social Care Information Centre. https://www.datadictionary.nhs.uk/nhs_business_definitions/learning_difficulty.html 

Perras, C. (2014, August 19). Language acquisition difficulty or learning disability? How to differentiate and support English language learners with a learning disability. LD@school. https://www.ldatschool.ca/language-acquisition-difficulty-or-learning-disability/ 

Read, C. (2020). Carol Read’s 101 tips for teaching primary children. Cambridge University. 

Sánchez, P. A., Rabadán Martínez, M., & Peñalver, I. V. (2008). La psicomotricidad en la escuela: Una práctica preventiva y educativa [Psychomotricity in the school. A preventive and educational practice] (4th ed.). Ediciones Aljibe. 

Rocio Mazzoleni holds a bachelor’s degree in English from the Instituto Superior de Lenguas (ISL), Universidad Nacional de Asunción in Paraguay, a master’s degree in applied linguistics from the Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, and a master’s in education and neuropsychology from the Universidad de la Rioja in Spain. Rocio teaches sociolinguistics and didactics and coordinates the ISL’s English degree program. For several years, she taught English to K-12 students with special learning needs. Rocio is the bilingual coordinator at an inclusive school for students with learning difficulties. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2429-5542  

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: rmazzol@gmail.com

Cover Photo by Jess Bailey on Unsplash