Valentina Canese

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch35  

ABSTRACT

Critical thinking occupies an important role in the teaching and learning of languages. Traditionally, language teaching was focused more on having students learn to use communication skills than on having students learn to think critically. However, because language is a fundamental instrument of thought within a given culture, teachers and researchers began seeing the need to teach students how to think critically in a target language and, also, to think critically about this language. In this chapter, you will learn about inquiry as a tool for helping students develop critical thinking skills while in their classroom setting. You will also learn strategies for incorporating inquiry into your lessons to help your students think critically about the language they are learning and, by doing so, to learn this language more effectively. 

Keywords: critical thinking, inquiry-based learning, knowledge, skills, dispositions, language teaching 

How to cite this chapter: 

Canese, V. (2023). Developing Critical Thinking Through Inquiry-Based Learning. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 418-430). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch35

INTRODUCTION

Our world’s evolving reality is characterized by constant change and rapid advances in technology. This reality has accelerated ongoing discussions about developing a new learning model for the 21st century (Scott, 2015), a model that also serves to enhance the learning of languages and the development of critical thinking. These ongoing discussions have centered on four pillars of learning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to be, and learning to live together (Delors, 1996). These pillars of learning are essential tenets for reshaping education and developing well-rounded individuals capable of understanding the world, participating in the global economy, reaching their fullest potential, and fostering peace and harmony. 

These four pillars are supported by skills in critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication—major elements in the Framework for 21st Century Learning (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2019). Among such skills, critical thinking has been prioritized by employers as the most important for the workforce. With critical thinking being “fundamental to twenty-first century learning" (Scott, 2015, p. 4), teachers need help to ensure that their students can think critically, which, in turn, will better prepare them for the workforce. Yet, despite the industries wanting "more critical thinking," universities—though espousing the value of critical thinking—often do not adequately prepare students with such skills (Davies & Barnett, 2015).

Languages are fundamental tools of thinking and, as such, of critical thinking. The need to include critical thinking in language classrooms was identified as the field of language teaching began shifting away from traditional approaches that focused mainly on communicative skills. This shift allowed for the development of critical thinking to assume a more prominent role in our language classrooms. Yet, as English teachers, we need to reflect and inquire not only on our teaching practices but, also, on how our practices are situated within a socio-political context (Pennycook, 2004). By doing so, we can better guide our students with inquiry-based learning, which, in turn, will support the development of their critical thinking skills. This chapter presents an overview of how to foster critical thinking through inquiry-based learning.  

BACKGROUND

As the 20th century entered its final decade, critical thinking was seen as "the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment,” and, also, as the reasoning that occurs when considering “evidence, context, conceptualizations, methods, and criteria” (Facione, 1990, p. 3). This process included disposition and attitude as well as cognitive concepts such as argumentation and reflective judging. The quest to define critical thinking evolved over the next three decades and gave rise to differing perspectives. 

Perspectives of Critical Thinking

Different perspectives of critical thinking were proposed by Davies and Barnett (2015) and by Thomas and Lock (2015). To help you better understand differences and similarities in these perspectives, I have displayed aspects from each perspective on a single graphic. This combined graphic is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Critical Thinking Dimensions.

Note. Compiled from The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education by M. Davies & R. Barnett (Eds.), 2015, Palgrave Macmillan; and from “Teaching Critical Thinking: An Operational Framework” by K. Thomas & B. Lok, 2015, in M. Davies & R. Barnett (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education (pp. 93-105). Palgrave Macmillan. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137378057

In Figure 1, critical thinking is positioned in the center of a triangle where its three sides represent three dimensions: skills, knowledge, dispositions. Each dimension includes the qualities that appear in the outer ring as well as other qualities such as those listed here:

• Skills—reasoning, interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and self-regulation as well as thinking reflectively, solving problems, and thinking metacognitively to formulate questions, generate ideas, cooperate with solutions, avoid fallacies, and manage biases

• Knowledge—general information, specific content, and experience as well as being able to assess and apply knowledge to different situations

• Disposition—attitudes, intellectual virtues, and habits of mind as well as displaying consistent motivation and being inquisitive, open minded, judicious, and truth-seeking  

These dimensions of critical thinking can overlap each other. For example, "dispositions plus skills" includes attitudes and habits needed to develop the analytic abilities of critical thinking. Similarly, these dimensions can be combined with other attributes of critical thinking, such as judgment (Davies & Barnett, 2015). Here, "skills and judgment" include the cognitive abilities of critical thinking that involve interpretation, analysis, inference, explanation, evaluation, metacognition, and self-regulation.

Core Critical Thinking Skills

Among a wide array of critical thinking skills, Facione (1990) identified and defined the following as core critical thinking skills: 

• Interpretation—"to comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria” (p. 13)

• Analysis—"to identify intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation for expressing belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions” (p. 14)

• Evaluation—"to assess credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; and to assess logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation” (p. 15)    

• Inference—"to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information; and to deduce the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation” (p. 16)

• Explanation—"to state the results of one's reasoning; to justify that reasoning in terms of evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological and contextual considerations upon which one's results were based; and to present one's reasoning in the form of cogent arguments” (p. 18) 

• Self-Regulation—"self-consciously to monitor one's cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results educed, particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one's own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting one's reasoning or one's results” (p. 19)

These core critical thinking skills are grounded in the concept of criticality, which involves thinking as well as being and acting (Davies & Barnett, 2015). From this perspective, critical thinking can be learned and practiced. In fact, a willingness to inquire and think critically may be considered a cardinal virtue of critical thinking. To guide your language learners with thinking critically, consider incorporating several inquiry-based strategies in your classroom such as debating, questioning, journaling, argument mapping, proposition testing, metacognitive evaluation, problem-based learning, and inquiry-based learning.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

The development of critical thinking can be supported by the revised Bloom’s taxonomy and, also, by the implementation of inquiry-based learning in the classroom.   

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy for Critical Thinking  

In the mid-20th century, categories of thinking were hierarchically placed within what came to be known as Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956). Several decades later, this taxonomy was revised with the goal of more dynamically describing its classifications (Anderson et al., 2001). Verbs and gerunds were used to label categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These “action words” describe the cognitive processes that are used by thinkers when working with knowledge. 

To help you better understand the relationship between these cognitive processes (i.e., thinking skills) and the categories in Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001; Bloom, 1956) and, also, to offset the hierarchical relationship implied by this taxonomy’s pyramid, I have developed a hexagon. The six-sided shape of this hexagon implies the interconnectedness of these six categories and, also, their never-ending all-encompassing relationship. This hexagon also serves to align these categories with the following thinking skills: 

• lower-order thinking skills (LOTS): remembering, understanding, and applying; and, 

• higher-order thinking skills (HOTS): analyzing, evaluating, and creating. 

Figure 2 provides my hexagonal representation of Bloom’s revised taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001) and illustrates how the categories from this taxonomy align with LOTS and HOTS.

Figure 2

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Aligned With Action Verbs and Thinking Skills

Note. Compiled from A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Anderson et al., 2001, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Figure 2 displays the cognitive processes of understanding, remembering, applying, analyzing, creating, and evaluating, which come from the revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001). These processes represent cognition, which is based on four types of knowledge:

• factual knowledge—terminology, specific details, elements

• conceptual knowledge—classifications, categories, principles, generalizations, theories, models, structures

• procedural knowledge—subject-specific skills and algorithms, subject-specific techniques and methods, criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

• metacognitive knowledge—strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge, and self-knowledge

The revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001) includes a simplified list of action verbs that can be used by teachers and learners to do critical thinking when planning and executing their inquiry projects. This revised taxonomy also provides the following guidelines:

• setting objectives for students to comprehend the purpose of the educational exchange; 

• organizing objectives to clarify the intended goals, which benefits both you and your students; and 

• using objectives to help with effectively planning and delivering instruction, designing valid assessment tasks and strategies, and ensuring alignment between instruction and assessment. 

Inquiry-Based Learning for Critical Thinking

Inquiry-based learning is an educational approach that fosters critical thinking where “students follow methods and practices similar to those of professional scientists in order to construct knowledge” (Pedaste et al., 2015, p. 48). This practice promotes learning by actively engaging students in solving real-world problems through activities known to be effective for language teaching. Such real-world problems foster the development of critical thinking by actively involving language learners as problem solvers in inquiry-based situations that mirror challenges they might face outside of the classroom. When English learners participate in such inquiry-based activities, this can have a significant impact on increasing their language development and their critical thinking ability (Ghaemi & Mirsaeed, 2017).  

Inquiry-based learning promotes a problem-solving mindset, which, in turn, encourages students to approach problems and challenges by focusing on finding solutions. It requires students to analyze information, evaluate different perspectives, and generate creative ideas. By doing so, this problem-solving mindset creates a rich environment for students to actively engage in critical thinking. This environment supports inquiry-based learning among students by

• fostering their active engagement, 

• developing their questioning skills, 

• promoting their evaluation of information, and 

• fostering their reflection.

In this process of inquiry-based learning, Pedaste et al. (2015) identified five phases: orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion, and discussion. To help you understand inquiry-based learning, I designed the simplified graphic shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Phases in the Inquiry Process

Note. Compiled from “Phases of Inquiry-Based Learning: Definitions and the Inquiry Cycle” by Pedaste et al., 2015, Educational Research Review, 14, 47-61.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.003 

In Figure 3, the inquiry process shows how all five phases include sub-phases: 

• Orientation—initiating inquiry-based learning process

• Conceptualization—questioning and then generating a hypothesis

• Investigation—exploring, experimenting, and then leading to data interpretation 

• Conclusion—interpreting and answering

• Discussion—reflecting, communicating, processing results, and sharing 

The final phase—discussion—connects to each of the earlier phases. In other words, discussion is potentially present at any time during this entire process. When discussion occurs during the inquiry-based learning process, it is called discussion-in-action. However, when discussion occurs after the completion of inquiry-based learning (e.g., by looking back), it is called discussion-on-action.

Based on this inquiry process, a participatory action research study was conducted in Paraguay. This study surveyed university faculty who teach in undergraduate degree programs that prepare pre-service teachers of English and other languages (Canese, 2020). It focused “on the need to emphasize the development of critical thinking skills in the teaching of foreign language in higher education in order to train professionals and teachers capable of developing these skills in their students” (p. 51). Findings revealed that these university instructors evaluated their own critical thinking skills in a mostly positive way. However, their self-perceptions did not always relate to their practices for promoting critical thinking among students. As a follow-up, activities to promote critical thinking skills were planned and implemented.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

To foster critical thinking in your students, consider using the inquiry-based learning model in Figure 3 (Pedaste et al., 2015). This five-phase model can guide you with planning and implementing inquiry-based activities. Sample activities for each phase are provided here. 

Orientation Phase

Provide guidelines to students on how to start their inquiry-based learning activity. Students observe the world and pose questions about what they find interesting or wish to learn more about. The following activities support the orientation phase.

• Question walls promote an inquisitive mindset by giving students an inviting space in the classroom to ask questions. Here, they write questions about any topic, not just topics being studied in class. 

• K-W-L charts activate students’ prior knowledge through a known activity. Here, students write down what they already know about a topic, what they wonder about it before doing the project, and then what they learned after finishing the project. 

Conceptualization Phase

Help students make plans on how to find answers to questions posed or for problems that need to be resolved. The following activities support the conceptualization phase.

• Graphic organizers help students make sense of what they already know and what they need to do for finding answers to their questions. Graphic organizers can be used throughout the process but are especially useful in this phase.

• Collaborative productivity applications (e.g., Google Drive, One Drive) are used by students to share plans for a project. Students often plan such projects by using digital tools such as Docs, Calendar, and Jamboard. 

Investigation Phase

Guide students in gathering information to answer their questions. Later, they process and analyze data to arrive at results, which may or may not answer their questions. The following activities support the investigation phase.

• Structured note-taking strategies are used by students to take notes during data collection. One strategy involves writing three main ideas, two key words, and one question or connection. Another strategy is a T-chart for recording observations on one side and comments on the other. 

• Online Forms help students quickly collect data in an engaging way that is related to their questions about the inquiry topic. These forms offer the advantage of generating a data sheet to help with analysis.  

Conclusion Phase 

Support students with interpreting their results in search of answers to their questions and solutions to their problems. Based on their findings, students create models or theories. The following activities support the conclusion phase.

• Storytelling and narratives can be used throughout the process. However, these strategies are especially useful in this phase for students to interpret data and make sense of solutions provided through earlier phases. 

• Presentation applications with templates and tools are exceptionally helpful. These tools serve as a model for students on how to make sense of their results and, also, how to share their results in the future. 

Discussion Phase

Encourage students to discuss throughout this inquiry process but especially during this final phase. Discussion involves teachers and students not only engaging but also sharing and evaluating process and results. The following activities support the discussion phase.

• Questioning strategies foster inquiry for students. By responding to these questions, students critically examine the process and the results of their inquiry project.

• Online sharing platforms provide a space for students to share. When using these platforms, students reflect on their process and results.

In this chapter, you learned about inquiry as a teaching tool to help language learners develop critical thinking skills. You learned strategies to design inquiry-based lessons for reflecting on problems and finding solutions to help learners think critically about the target language and, also, learn this language more effectively. By doing so, you can provide your learners with an inquiry-based learning community in which they work together to become lifelong learners.

Here are some key concepts about developing critical thinking through inquiry-based learning:

• Critical thinking is the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. This process involves reasoning based on evidence, context, conceptualizations, methods, and criteria.

• Critical thinking supports learning in the 21st century, which must respond to the reality of constant change accelerated by rapid technological advancements. 

• Critical thinking facilitates language learning. Because language is a fundamental instrument of thought, language learners need to know how to think critically in and about the language.

• Critical thinking includes aspects that can be classified as cognitive (e.g., argumentation, reflective judging) as well as disposition and attitude. 

• Inquiry-based learning provides a rich environment for students to actively engage in critical thinking by fostering active engagement, developing questioning skills, promoting information evaluation, and fostering reflection.

• This inquiry-based learning process involves five phases: orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion, and discussion.

• A useful framework for inquiry-based learning is Bloom’s revised taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001), which includes lower-order thinking skills (remembering, understanding, applying) and higher-order thinking skills (analyzing, evaluating, creating). 

With respect to critical thinking and inquiry-based learning, answer these questions:

1. Given the accelerating development of technology in all aspects of life, what skills do you think are most important for learners to acquire through education? 

2. Considering the critical thinking frameworks and models presented in this chapter, how do you think they can be applied to planning and delivering lessons that are highly engaging? 

3. What aspects of inquiry-based learning do you think can help learners the most with the development of critical thinking skills? 

4. How can you apply inquiry-based learning in a language classroom considering the students’ ages and their different levels of language proficiency?

Based on what you know about critical thinking and inquiry-based learning, do the following:

1. Take a lesson plan or textbook unit and identify how critical thinking can be incorporated into the different learning moments or activities. 

2. Take any topic of your interest and plan an inquiry-based learning lesson contemplating the incorporation of critical thinking in each of the steps.

To expand on critical thinking and inquiry-based learning, visit these websites:

• Bloom’s Taxonomy. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/  

• Can students inquire in a foreign language? https://inquiryblog.wordpress.com/2011/12/07/can-students-inquire-in-a-foreign-language/

• Critical thinking skills and inquiry. https://www.edutopia.org/article/critical-thinking-inquiry/ 

• Education reimagined: Partnership for learning. https://education-reimagined.org/resources/partnership-for-21st-century-learning/ 

• Inquiry and the research process. https://www.edutopia.org/article/inquiry-and-research-process 

• Inquiry-based English classrooms. https://www.edutopia.org/article/inquiry-based-learning-english-classrooms/ 

• Phases of inquiry-based learning. https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/4-phases-inquiry-based-learning-guide-teachers/ 

• Power and promise of 21st century learning. https://www.battelleforkids.org/about-us  

• Questions to guide inquiry-based learning. https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/6-questions-students-can-use-guide-inquiry-based-learning/ 

• Workshop on inquiry-based learning. https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index.html 

Aspects related to critical thinking and inquiry-based learning are also addressed by other chapters in this book: 

Chapter 13 Designing Learner-Centered Classrooms to Promote Active Learning by H. Kaiser

Chapter 14 Promoting Thinking Skills to Enhance Language Learning by K. Sandi

Chapter 34 Alternative Approaches to English Language Teaching by G. Díaz Maggioli 

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.

Canese, V. (2020). Critical thinking in language teaching at the Higher Institute of Languages, National University of Asunción, Paraguay, Revista Científica de la Facultad de Filosofía, 11, 49-69.

Davies, M., & Barnett, R. (Eds.). (2015). The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education. Palgrave Macmillan. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137378057 

Delors, J. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000109590 

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (The Delphi Report). American Philosophical Association. ERIC document ED, 315, 423. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED315423 

Ghaemi, F., & Mirsaeed, S. J. G. (2017). The impact of inquiry-based learning approaches on critical thinking skills of EFL students. EFL Journal, 2(2), 89-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.21462/eflj.v2i2.38 

Partnership for 21st Century Learning. (2019). Framework for 21st century learning. Battelle for kids. https://static.battelleforkids.org/documents/p21/p21_framework_brief.pdf 

Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L. A., de Jong, T., van Riesen, S. A. N., Kamp, E. T., Manoli, C. C., Zacharia, Z. C., & Tsourlidaki, E. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational research review, 14, 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.003

Pennycook, A. (2004). Critical moments in a TESOL praxicum. In B. Norton & K. Toohey (Eds.), Critical pedagogies and language learning (pp. 327-345). Cambridge University Press. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/1268/3/2004001321.pdf 

Scott, C. L. (2015). The futures of learning 2: What kind of learning for the 21st century. UNESCO Education Research and Foresight: Working Papers, 14, 1-14. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000242996 

Thomas, K., & Lok, B. (2015). Teaching critical thinking: An operational framework. In M. Davies & R. Barnett (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education (pp. 93-105). Palgrave Macmillan. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137378057_6 

Valentina Canese, is currently faculty and director at the Instituto Superior de Lenguas (ISL), Universidad Nacional de Asunción (UNA) in Paraguay. She holds a bachelor’s in English (ISL, UNA), a master’s in education (San Diego State University) and a doctorate in curriculum and instruction (Arizona State University). Her research interests include bilingualism, language education, ICT and Distance Education. She is the editor in chief of the multilingual journal "Ñemityra: Revista Multilingüe de Lengua, Sociedad y Educación” She is the founding President of the Paraguayan Association of Applied Linguistics and the current Second Vice President of PARATESOL, Paraguay’s TESOL Affiliate. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1584-7322  

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: vcanese@fil.una.py

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