Clara Onatra

Sandra Palencia

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch32  

ABSTRACT

Language teaching has evolved over time. When the 20th century began, languages were taught primarily with the Grammar-Translation Method and, to a lesser degree, with the Direct Method. As that century advanced, other methods and approaches emerged. These included the Oral Approach (Situational Language Teaching), Audiolingual Method, Suggestopedia, Silent Way, Total Physical Response, Natural Approach, Community Language Learning, Communicative Approach, and Task-Based Learning. In this chapter, you will explore the history of language teaching and the principles that supported the methods and approaches used in the 20th century. You will learn that some of these methods were popular only briefly and others are still in use. You will also learn how the major trends from the 20th century continue to influence language teaching practices in the 21st century. With such insights, you will be better able to understand the ways that languages are now taught. 

Keywords: history of language teaching, major ELT trends, teaching methods, approaches for teaching languages, instructional practices

How to cite this chapter: 

Onatra, C. & Palencia, S. (2023). Major ELT Trends in the 20th Century. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 388-397). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch32

INTRODUCTION

The 20th century was dominated by an ongoing quest for effective methods to teach languages, a quest that contributed to shaping the way that languages are taught today. As social structures changed and new societal needs emerged, the field of English language teaching (ELT) evolved to meet those needs. Throughout the past century and continuing to the present, our profession has systematically sought to address diverse issues faced by teachers in language classrooms. Pedagogical issues included prioritizing accuracy over fluency (or vice versa), teaching four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), and developing a syllabus and lesson plans based on prevailing learning theories. Related issues have been the importance of grammar and vocabulary, the role of motivation and learning strategies, and the function of resources and technology. This ongoing quest led to new language learning theories, which, in turn, led to new teaching methods. With their respective strategies and techniques, these diverse methods and approaches share a similar goal, that of attempting to teach languages as effectively as possible.

This chapter describes the teaching methods and approaches used in the 20th century. Several of these methods were in widespread use at a given point in time, such as the Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, Oral Approach (Situational Language Teaching), and Audiolingual Method. Some methods such as the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Natural Approach, and Total Physical Response offered innovative insights but did not became universally adopted. Other methods such as Task-Based Learning, Community Language Learning, and the Communicative Approach gained popularity toward the end of the 20th century and are still being used. Whether these methods and approaches were once in universal favor or viewed solely as an alternative approach, all contributed to the methodological trends of the 20th century.  

BACKGROUND

The history of language teaching methods and approaches (and their ongoing transformation) is relevant for teacher education programs. Pre-service teachers need to be aware of how the ELT field has changed over time and how this trajectory fits within our discipline. By knowing issues and questions that were addressed in the past, you will be better prepared to face similar issues and questions when planning and developing your own language courses in the future. After reviewing and evaluating other teaching principles and procedures, compare them with your own knowledge and beliefs.

When you start your teaching career and are in your own classroom, you will begin experiencing the multi-faceted reality of our profession. At first, you might teach by applying principles and techniques proposed by others. However, after gaining experience and knowledge, focus on developing your own way of teaching, one that reflects your beliefs, qualities, ideals, and experiences. Over time and as you gain more confidence, consider using different approaches and methods in innovative and flexible ways. Even after you have been teaching for a while, seek additional training, such as about new methods being adopted by your ELT institution.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

By learning about ELT methods and approaches used in the past, you will be better able to understand and adapt new methods to your teaching style. Following are the major ELT methods and approaches used in the 20th century.

Grammar-Translation Method 

The Grammar-Translation Method, which was first known in the United States as the Prussian method, predominated between the 1840s and 1940s (Richards & Rogers, 2014). This method consists of teaching grammar rules and then applying them by translating sentences between the native language and target language. The students’ native language serves as a reference for learning the target language. The main features of the Grammar-Translation Method are as follows:

• Lessons are conducted in the students’ mother tongue.

• Grammar is taught deductively.

• Lessons emphasize reading and writing.

• Vocabulary is taught through lists of isolated words.

Direct Method

The Direct Method emerged at the end of the 19th century in reaction against the Grammar-Translation Method. By questioning the earlier focus on written language, this method focused on learning a second language (L2) similarly to how the first language (L1) is learned (Thornbury, 2000). The main features of the Direct Method are as follows:

• Classes are conducted in the target language.

• Grammar is taught inductively.

• Classes focus on the development of speaking and listening.

• Lessons focus solely on useful everyday language.

Oral Approach (Situational Language Teaching)

The Oral Approach was developed between the 1930s and 1960s (Richards & Rogers, 2014). Based on one of its main features, this approach has also been called Situational Language Teaching. Unlike the Direct Method, the Oral Approach is based on principles and procedures that are more easily adapted to a formal classroom setting. The main features of the Oral Approach are as follows:

• Content is taught orally in the target language before the written form is introduced.

• Vocabulary is selected with the goal of meeting students’ language level by incorporating relatively little content.

• Grammar patterns are taught orally by classifying L2 structures into sentence patterns (substitution drills) to help learners acquire rules for organizing L2 sentences.

• New language is presented orally within common situations, and students practice this language situationally while it is being presented.

Audiolingual Method

The Audiolingual Method was developed in the United States during World War II to provide military staff with specialized language training (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). This method consists of achieving conversational proficiency in diverse foreign languages. The main features of the Audiolingual Method are as follows:

• Language learning is viewed as habit formation.

• New content and language are introduced through dialogues that learners memorize.

• Structures are taught through intensive drilling.

• Grammar is to be learned inductively by the learners.

• Speaking and listening (including pronunciation) are of utmost importance.

Silent Way

The Silent Way was developed in the 1950s by Caleb Gattegno, an Egyptian educator and psychologist. This method consists of having students use the language with the teacher’s silence as a main teaching strategy (Richards & Rogers, 2014). Teachers provide learners with ample opportunities to talk and encourage them to produce as much language as possible. In this method, the teacher’s role is to follow a structured syllabus and monitor learners’ efforts. The learner’s role is to participate actively in the learning process. The main features of the Silent Way are as follows:

• Learners have autonomy to explore and discover (rather than repeat and remember).

• Physical objects and problem-solving activities are used to facilitate learning.

• Instruction is based on Fidel Sound Charts (based on colors) to teach sounds and Cuisenaire Rods (imported from math teaching) to teach grammar and sentence structures.

Suggestopedia

The Suggestopedia Method was developed in the late 1970’s by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian psychologist. Based on the premise that students learn faster when using the language, this method consists of making students feel relaxed, motivated, and positive towards the new language (Rustipa, 2011). It emerged to help language learners overcome psychological barriers such as anxiety, fear, boredom, and fatigue. Suggestopedia uses music, visuals, dialogs, and relaxation exercises for making the language practical and enjoyable and for supporting the language learning process. The four stages in Suggestopedia are as follows:  

• Presentation: Learners become relaxed and assume a positive mind set by hearing music for a calming influence and by doing physical exercises. 

• Active Concert: After the teacher presents new L2 features in a lively way, the learners sing songs, play games, or do roleplays.

• Passive Concert: Live music is played to relax and stimulate the brain so that the learners use less effort when acquiring language. 

• Practice: The learners speak in an unpremeditated manner, perform in a natural way, and interact without being corrected. 

Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response was developed in the 1970s by James Asher to learn language by doing physical activities (Coşar & Orhan, 2019). This method, which represents behavioral language learning theory, consists of students listening to oral input and responding physically. The imperative mood and physical actions form the basis for this method, and these are led by the teacher. The learning process takes place when learners listen, do activities, and watch classmates doing activities (Richards & Rogers, 2014). The main features of Total Physical Response are as follows:

• Students comprehend oral input, represent their comprehension through movements, and do this without feeling pressure. 

• Students listen, recognize simple instructions (stand up, sit down), and perform actions.  

The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach was developed in the 1970s by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Based on naturalistic principles of second language acquisition, this method focuses on communication. It provides language exposure in the absence of emotional learning impediments. The main features of the Natural Approach are as follows:

• Students communicate in the new language without using their mother tongue.

• Students focus more on input and comprehension than on practice.

• Grammar is not included as a condition during the process of teaching and learning.

Community Language Learning 

Community Language Learning was developed in the 1980s by Charles Curran for infusing psychological aspects while students focus on targeted language skills (Nurhasanah, 2015). The teacher is called counselor and, as such, provides advice and assistance. The student is called client and, as such, has a need to be met. Classroom activities stem from this counselor-client relationship (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Anchored in the affective realm, this approach is based on how students feel. The main features of Community Language Learning are as follows:

• Translation: As needed, students can use their L1. 

• Groupwork: Interaction is a key element. 

• Recording: Students record their L2 conversations.

• Transcription: Students transcribe conversations for extra practice.

• Analysis: Lessons focus on grammar rules and the use of language structures. 

• Reflection: Students reflect on their learning experience and describe their observations.

• Listening: Students listen to teachers and classmates. 

• Conversation: Free conversation is often related to feelings about the learning process.

Communicative Approach

The Communicative Approach was introduced in the 1980s and still continues to be widely used (Richards & Rogers, 2014). This approach consists of incorporating linguistic features, social meanings, communicative functions, and cultural settings. Situations where language is used are of utmost importance for identifying and creating the teaching scenarios. In these contexts, class activities are designed for students to communicate by focusing on meaning but without focusing on grammar, similar to the process undertaken by young children when acquiring their L1 (Hymes, 1972). As such, the Communicative Approach provides interactive opportunities in real-life situations through pair work, group work, dialogues, and roleplays (Jabeen, 2014). The main features of the Communicative Approach are as follows:

• Students learn the target language by using it. 

• Lesson objectives are based on authentic communication activities. 

• Fluency has a pivotal role. 

• Learning is a creative construction and, thus, entails a trial-and-error process. 

Task-Based Learning  

Task-Based Learning was developed during the 1980s and 1990s. This method consists of using tasks as the basis to do lesson planning (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). These tasks are activities that represent real meaningful conversations that foster effective learning (Willis, 1996). When students participate in task-based activities (rather than grammar-based activities), they communicate in scenarios that activate a successful learning process. During Task-Based Learning, students become immersed with comprehensible input activities in contexts where they negotiate meaningful conversations through natural communication. The main features of Task-Based Learning are as follows: 

• Lessons are focused on process rather than product.

• Communication and meaning are emphasized through purposeful activities.

• Learners interact by becoming engaged in tasks.

• Tasks are based on real-life situations.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

By examining ELT methods and approaches from the 20th century, we are better able to identify today’s emerging issues and provide positive responses. Current and future research findings and other pedagogical trends can lead to refining earlier methods and introducing new ones. These initiatives can come from researchers and administrators as well as from teachers in ELT classrooms. Even when such initiatives are driven by political and social demands, the direction for implementing change can be provided by ELT leaders. Over time and across continents, our language teaching methods have been influenced by research findings and pedagogical trends, by innovations and technological advances, and by government and schooling policies (Ali & Elimam, 2020; Soomro & Almalki, 2017). 

Undoubtedly, such aspects will continue influencing ELT. Consequently, regardless of the method used at your institution, always try to do the following:

• Learn about teaching/learning theories and make these theories come alive in your classroom so that students feel motivated to learn. 

• Conduct a needs analysis on the first day to identify students’ interests. 

• Identify a major objective for each lesson and share it with students in a way that they can understand. Assess the objective by collecting evidence of student learning. 

• Create and implement interactive activities related to real-life situations centered on students (not on grammar) and transition smoothly from one activity to the next.

• Design meaningful assignments for your students, provide feedback by starting with positive aspects, and suggest ways to improve. 

• Listen to your students and solicit their suggestions on how to improve your teaching. 

In this chapter, you learned about ELT methods and approaches used in the 20th century. You learned that several were in universal favor at specific points in time, others served as alternative approaches, and some emerged towards the end of that century and are still in use today. You also learned that, whether with limited use or widespread use, these methods and approaches contributed to the methodological trends of the 20th century and, across the decades, have continued to influence our ELT profession.

ELT methods and approaches from the 20th century represent several major trends:

• Grammar-Translation Method focuses on grammar by translating isolated sentences.

• Direct Method uses only the target language for instruction.

• Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching focus on sentence patterns and vocabulary by introducing and practicing different situations.

• Audiolingual Method provides language models that learners repeat and memorize until internalizing rules and using them spontaneously.

• Silent Way has teachers remain quiet while learners explore and use language.

• Suggestopedia has learners experiencing positive cognitive and motivational outcomes. 

• Total Physical Response is students understanding oral input and responding physically.

• Natural Approach is based on naturalistic principles of second language acquisition.

• Community Language Learning is a humanistic approach representing a counselor-client relationship based on student feelings. 

• Communicative Approach focuses on social meaning of communicative functions rather than linguistic aspects. 

• Task-Based Learning has real-life scenarios to activate learning processes rather than grammar-based activities. 

Based on this overview of 20th century ELT methods and approaches, answer these questions:

1. Under which methods or approaches did you learn a language or were you trained to teach? How might this influence the method or approach that you would like to use as a teacher?

2. What changes in teaching methodologies have you experienced? What do you think caused these changes to take place?

3. If you were to defend just one teaching method, which would it be and why?

To practice what you learned about ELT trends in the 20th century, do the following:

1. Observe a language class, identify the teaching method or approach, and describe whether it is effective and why.

2. Based on teaching methods used in the 20th century, select the most ideal one for you to use and explain why.

To expand your knowledge about 20th century methods and approaches, visit these websites:

• Approaches and methods in language teaching. https://sckool.org/approaches-and-methods-in-language-teaching.html  

• Major trends in 20th century language teaching. https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/major-trends-in-twentieth-century-language-teaching 

Insights to ELT methods in the 20th century are also provided by other chapters in this book: 

Chapter 25 Preparing to Teach Through Effective Lesson Planning by H. Lalwani

Chapter 26 Counterbalancing Content and Language Integrated Learning by A. Roca

Chapter 33 Current Approaches in English Language Teaching by N. Dantaz

Chapter 34 Alternative Approaches to English Language Teaching by G. Díaz Maggioli

Chapter 36 Task-Based Approach With Adult Learners by I. Giménez and C. Rolón

Chapter 38 A Socio-Cultural Approach to Teaching Grammar by C. Davies, J. Prado, and J. Austin 

Ali, S. M. D., & Elimam, E. M. J. (2020, December). Innovative trends in English language teaching in Sudan in the twentieth century. Kordofan Journal of Educational Sciences, 1(1), 121-131. https://mail.kordofan.edu.sd/KU/dec2020/8.pdf

Coşar, Z., & Orhan, R. (2019). Teaching kindergarten children English vocabulary by Total Physical Response in physical education courses. Journal of Physical Education and Sports Management, 6(2), 70-76. https://nieer.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/8.pdf 

Hymes, D. (1972). Models of the interactions of language and social life. In J. J. Gumperz & D. H. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication (pp. 35-71). Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Jabeen, S. S. (2014). Implementation of a communicative approach. English Language Teaching, 7(8), 68-74. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n8p68

Krashen, S. D. & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Alemany Press. 

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Nurhasanah, S. (2015). The use of Community Language Learning (CLL) method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation. Register Journal, 8(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v8i1.81-98 

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Rustipa, K. (2011). Suggestopedia: How does it accelerate language learning. LITE: Jurnal Bahasa, Sastra, dan Budaya, 7(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.33633/lite.v7i1.1098 

Soomro, A. F., & Almalki, M. S. (2017). Language practitioners' reflections on method-based and post-method pedagogies. English Language Teaching, 10(5), 234-242. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1140101.pdf

Thornbury, S. (2000). How to teach grammar. Longman.

Willis, J. (1996). A flexible framework for task-based learning. Longman 

Clara Onatra holds a doctorate in education from the Universidad de Baja California in Mexico. Clara is a professor and researcher at the Universidad Libre in Bogota, Colombia where she teaches in the bachelor’s degree program in Spanish and foreign languages. Her research interests are information and communication technologies in education, research seedbeds, flipped learning, autonomous learning, and second language acquisition. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8728-1858  

Emails for correspondence regarding this chapter: clarai.onatrac@unilibre.edu.co

Sandra Palencia holds a master’s degree in applied linguistics from the Universidad Distrital and a bachelor’s degree in philology and languages from the Universidad Nacional, both in Colombia. Sandra is a professor and researcher at the Universidad Libre in Bogota, Colombia and at the Universidad Nacional. Her fields of interest are flipped learning, information and communication technologies for teaching English as a foreign language, and self-regulated learning. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4655-5277  

Emails for correspondence regarding this chapter: sandram.palenciag@unilibre.edu.co

Cover Photo by 愚木混株 cdd20 on Unsplash