Heather R. Kaiser

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch13  

ABSTRACT

Approaches to teaching English as a second or subsequent language have advanced greatly since the 1960s. Grammatical and teacher-centered methods have given way to cognitive and communicative approaches that promote student-centeredness through meaningful, hands-on tasks. With education viewed as a dynamic process, teachers commit to active learning and involve students in the learning process through active, meaningfully interactions within real-life situations. Other than site-based or immersive experiences, the optimal environment for this type of active learning is a learner-centered classroom. Learner-centered classrooms allow students to work together actively in the target language and learn content through reflection and engagement with the material. In this chapter, you will learn key characteristics of active learning environments and tasks to promote active language learning. You will also learn about active learning, active learning environment, cooperative learning, and Kagan structures. 

Keywords: learner-centered classrooms, active learning environments, language learning, student-centeredness

How to cite this chapter: 

Kaiser, H. (2023). Designing Learner-Centered Classrooms to Promote Active Learning. In V. Canese & S. Spezzini (Eds.), Teaching English in Global Contexts, Language, Learners and Learning (pp. 167-175). Editorial Facultad de Filosofía, UNA. https://doi.org/10.47133/tegc_ch13

INTRODUCTION

Learner-centered classrooms can promote active learning as illustrated by this vignette about Ms. Wend, who teaches third-grade English learners in Paraguay. Ms. Wend has designed a reading unit on a beloved children’s book whose main character, Pippi, likes doing adventures outdoors (Lindgren, 1950). Ms. Wend’s routine includes reading aloud as the students follow along and pausing to ask comprehension questions. In this story, Pippi goes on a picnic with friends. Ms. Wend is unsure if her students have the contextual knowledge for understanding the concept of an American-style picnic. To demonstrate, Ms. Wend prepares a picnic basket with snacks, drinks, napkins, and a large blanket for a surprise picnic so that her students can participate in the story. As students arrive, Ms. Wend greets them and asks them to take their seats. First, she activates learners’ recall by having them explain what had happened in previous chapters. Then, she prepares students for the new chapter by projecting key words with visual illustrations. When the word “picnic” appears, she asks if anyone has been to a picnic in the United States or knows about it. As suspected, many children shake their head “no.” Ms. Wend briefly explains the concept, spreads the blanket on the floor, and invites students to join her. Excitedly, the students make their way to the blanket and sit around the teacher. Upon noticing the basket, they wonder aloud what might be inside. Ms. Wend opens the basket, pulls out various items, and distributes them. While the children enjoy their picnic, Ms. Wend reads the new chapter to them. When she gets to the word “picnic,” everyone smiles in understanding.  

BACKGROUND

The approaches for teaching English as a second or subsequent language (L2) have advanced since the 1960s. Grammatical and teacher-centered methods have given way to cognitive and communicative approaches for promoting student-centeredness and meaningful, hands-on tasks (Chamot, 2009; Herrera & Murry, 2016; VanPatten, 2017). As Ms. Wend’s picnic activity demonstrates, active learning strategies often create excitement in the classroom and foster learning well beyond the bounds of traditional lecture, notetaking, and rote memorization (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Brame, 2016). Through active learning, which is defined as “an instructional approach that understands education as a dynamic process . . . involving the application of content in ‘real-life’ situations” (Ovando & Combs, 2018, p. 423), teachers seek to involve students meaningfully in the learning process. Other than on-site experiences, the optimal environment for active learning is a learner-centered classroom. Such classrooms provide an environment where students actively work together in the target language and develop knowledge of content through reflection and engagement with the material. This chapter explores key characteristics of highly effective, learner-centered classrooms and examines four key aspects of the learning environment: physical, social, psycho-emotional, and cognitive. Environments that meet these four needs can be highly conducive to learning. However, active learning strategies must also be included as both a means and an end for creating such an environment, given that learning strategies and learner-centered environments mutually reinforce each other.

MAJOR DIMENSIONS

Learner-centered classrooms are active learning environments (ALEs) that are comprised of four key aspects: physical, social, psycho-emotional, and cognitive. 

Physical

An ALE’s physical setting is learner centered. It facilitates students interacting with their teacher and classmates as well as with the learning materials (Herrera & Murry, 2016). Some teachers may find it difficult to depart from the traditional teacher-centered configuration in which teachers lecture and students listen and take notes. This might still occur in large classrooms where lecturing is considered efficient for teaching large groups of students (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In such cases, the classroom is often configured with rows of desks facing the instructor. However, research on student engagement calls for flexible learner-centered seating (Scott-Webber et al., 2014). Both arrangements are shown in Figure 1. Here, traditional teacher-centered seating is in the left picture, and flexible learner-centered seating is in the right picture.

Figure 1

Traditional Teacher-Centered Seating and Flexible Learner-Centered Seating.

Note. Licensed under CC BY-ND, https://www.steelcase.com/research/articles/topics/active-learning/how-classroom-design-affects-student-engagement

In Figure 1, the seating arrangement in the right-hand picture illustrates the potential for being quickly reconfigured. For example, swivel seats allow each student to rotate and face another classmate in different direction. The furniture’s lightweight structure allows students to move their chairs (with attached desks) to other locations. Such reconfigurations allow optimal engagement of students when listening and interacting with their teacher, when working in pairs and groups, and, also, when working individually. This seating arrangement is so fluid that it can be changed several times during the same class period. As shown in the opening vignette, Ms. Wend did not even use desks for her picnic-based lesson. Just like Ms. Wend, teachers can explore different options, such as floor spaces, to immerse students into learning. In this way, students can learn while being part of a learning community in which all have equitable status as contributors (Herrera & Murry, 2016).

Social

The social aspect of ALEs is how students view themselves in relation to others and their interpersonal connectivity. Because language is a social activity, the social aspect of ALEs needs to be generously cultivated. This supports the physical aspect of ALEs in that students can see each other’s faces and gestures as they talk (Herrera & Murry, 2016). In this way, students actively engage in learning through conversation, as well as by supporting and extending each other’s understanding of concepts through cooperative work (Brame, 2016). Ms. Wend’s picnic lesson incorporates the social aspect of the ALE when she invites the students to sit and share experiences with each other as they talk about their reading and make new discoveries together. 

Psycho-Emotional

As explained by Horwitz et al. (1983), “No other field of study implicates self-concept and self-expression to the degree that language study does” (p. 128). Yet, language learning can also evoke language anxiety, which is “the anxiety that results from learners’ emotional responses to the learning conditions they experience in a specific [L2 learning] situation” (Ellis, 2015, p. 55). Because language anxiety is considered a psychological factor affecting second language acquisition that triggers learners’ emotional responses, these comprise one category. Factors that frequently increase language anxiety include learners comparing themselves with others, speaking spontaneously in the target language in front of others, being evaluated negatively, and taking tests (Ellis, 2015; Horwitz et al., 1983). Because of how L2 learning can trigger language anxiety, Krashen (1981) posited an “affective filter” (p. 22). Learners with low affective filters can more effectively receive and process language input. Thus, we strive to create ALEs in which students’ affective filters are low and their psycho-emotional needs are met to the extent possible. The successful ALE is inclusive, supportive, and welcoming as well as conducive to reducing anxiety among students (Herrera & Murry, 2016), thus allowing them to take risks (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In her picnic lesson, Ms. Wend does not distinguish between “picnic experts” and “picnic rookies,” which could have raised students’ anxiety. Nor does she demand that students explain “picnic” in front of the group. Rather, she invites them to share and learn collaboratively in a low-pressure environment while sitting on the classroom floor. Here, social and physical aspects are interwoven within the ALE’s psycho-emotional aspect.

Cognitive

In addition to the physical, social, and psycho-emotional aspects described above, the ALE also entails a cognitive aspect. To help you understand the interconnectedness of these four ALE aspects, I have conceptualized them as the graphic in Figure 2. Here, the ideal ALE is at the center, and all four aspects converge.

Figure 2

Conceptualizing the ALE. 

As illustrated in Figure 2, the ALE comprises physical, social, psycho-emotional, and cognitive aspects. To specifically meet learners’ cognitive needs, ALEs need to be language-rich and authentic. Such ALEs incorporate content, academic terminology, and the explicit use of learning strategies (Chamot, 2009). When ALE content incorporates major subject areas, the input authenticity increases, and connections are made across disciplines. Environments rich in academic language serve to enhance language skills “through cognitively demanding activities . . . assisted by contextual supports and scaffolded instruction” (Chamot, 2009, p. 6). In ALEs with explicit teaching of learning strategies, such as inferencing and prediction (Ellis, 2015), students can “learn, retain, and be able to use new information more effectively” (Chamot, 2009, p. 6). Cognitively effective ALEs offer challenging curricula, high expectations for learning, and tools for success. In Ms. Wend’s classroom, these aspects come together as she presents a lesson that is rich with content—authentic piece of children’s literature, ripe with various word types—comprehension words and academic words, and inclusive of learning strategies—prior knowledge, inferences, and “kinesthetic sense” (p. 183)

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

To design your learner-centered classroom so that it can promote active learning, be sure to implement several of these activities, strategies, structures, and tasks.

Activities that Reduce Language Anxiety

Activities that reduce language anxiety serve to foster social and psycho-emotional aspects of language learning. This can be done by students getting to know each other while using English. For example, on the first day, put students in groups of three or four and have them chat for a few minutes in their native language. After that, ask groups to tell you what they talked about. With student input, co-construct a list of all questions asked and write these on the board. Many questions will be the same, such as “What is your name?” Compile a list of all questions asked, omitting repetitious or odd ones. Translate these into English with the native language as a scaffold. Explain that these questions are useful almost anywhere and that it is important to master them for conversational fluency. Help students with pronouncing the questions in English and teach them appropriate replies, such as one- or two-word responses that are appropriate for beginners. Create a routine for regularly practicing these questions (e.g., as a warm-up to start class). Occasionally mix the groups. Not only will students get to know their peers, but they will start gaining confidence when speaking conversational English. 

Cooperative Learning Strategies

No matter how traditional your teaching style, you can promote active learning by including strategies that encourage students to engage with each other and that tap into higher order thinking. For example, imagine that you are about to demonstrate an English grammar structure (verb tense). Instead of explaining the structure, write some examples on the board and guide students in discovering patterns. Have them write their thoughts and discuss with a partner. Students compile their thoughts: One student is the “recorder,” and another is the “reporter.” Continue with the demonstration and then reveal the structure. Afterwards, ask students to compare their prediction with the actual pattern. This procedure “asks students to test their understanding of a system by predicting an outcome” (Brame, 2016, p. 3). It also has students reflecting upon and mentally processing information in a more active way while working with peers.

Kagan Structures

Kagan structures are cooperative instructional strategies that teachers use in myriad contexts for different contents and instructional targets (Kagan, 2013). One strategy is Numbered Heads Together, which can serve to monitor reading comprehension and ensure that all students understand. In this strategy, you need to form groups of four students, or use a flexible seating arrangement (Figure 1). If the class size is not divisible by 4, some groups might have only three students (and that’s ok). For example, if you have 18 students, you can form three groups with four students and two groups with three students. Within each group, students count off 1-2-3-4. In groups of three students, the third student has numbers 3 and 4. Ask a question and provide think time. Without talking, each student writes an answer on paper or a small erasable board. After you call time, students share their answers with groupmates, discuss within their respective group, and reach consensus. All groups participate simultaneously in their respective intra-group discussion. After groups have discussed for about a minute, you repeat the question and randomly call out a number from 1 to 4. In each group, the student with that number shares the group’s answer with the rest of the class. Everyone applauds these numbered students, and constructive feedback is provided. In this Numbered Heads Together strategy, students benefit by coaching, tutoring, and supporting each other, and this leads to everyone mastering content. In other words, all students participate and are responsible for knowing the answer (adapted from Kagan, 2013, pp. 20-23).

Tasks With a Communicative Purpose

Classroom tasks should “involve the expression and interpretation of meaning [and] have a purpose that is not language practice” (VanPatten, 2017, p. 80). Interpretation of meaning for an authentic purpose engages learners and stimulates language acquisition. VanPatten believes that meaningful tasks can be accomplished by students at all levels of language proficiency. For example, in beginning language classes with teenagers and young adults, VanPatten suggests using the task “At What Age” (pp. 80). In this task, students predict the average age when people might experience major life events such as graduating from college, getting married, and having their first child. After individually writing down their predictions, students interview each other in pairs, compare their responses, and discuss differences in how they had predicted ages for these events. Afterwards, the teacher elicits predictions from all student pairs and writes them on the board. Based on these combined responses, the class establishes a class-based prediction of the average age for each life event. Next, the teacher reveals data from the latest census and compares the data with these class-based predictions. This task involves more than language learning and use. It is interdisciplinary (e.g., social studies, math, statistics), connects students with one another for a shared purpose, and allows students to use prior knowledge for making cultural comparisons. 

In this chapter, you learned about designing learner-centered classroom environments to promote active learning. You learned that an effective learning environment includes physical, social, psycho-emotional, and cognitive aspects. You also learned that these interlocking aspects are reinforced by active strategies and tasks that encourage learners to take risks, work cooperatively, activate higher order thinking, and use language for authentic purposes.

Here are some key concepts about learner-centered classrooms and active learning:

• Active learning is learner-centered instruction for engaging students in tasks to construct knowledge and understanding and, also, for using both higher order thinking and metacognition (Brame, 2016).

• Classrooms become environments for active learning (i.e., ALEs) upon meeting students’ physical, social, psycho-emotional, and cognitive needs (Bonwell & Eison, 1991).

• Cooperative learning is active, social, interactive, and collaborative. Such learning uses knowledge and skills of individuals working together to perform tasks or solve problems (Ovando & Combs, 2018).

• Kagan structures are repeatable, content-free, cooperative instructional strategies for all teaching contexts, especially language learning (Kagan, 2013).

Based on knowledge from this chapter, develop meaningful answers to these questions:

1. To what extent does your current classroom meet the four ALE aspects (physical, social, psycho-emotional, cognitive)? What might you change or add?

2. What active learning activities and strategies do you currently use, and which ones would you like to try?

To practice what you have learned, do the following:

1. Examine your physical classroom. Arrange seating so that learners can see and interact with each other. Display work and add interactive elements so that the space is never static.

2. Reduce language anxiety. Continually gauge your learners’ anxiety. Allow students ample time to practice speaking alone and in groups before speaking to the class. When students speak, do not interrupt them to correct errors. Explain to students how and when you will be assessing their participation and language output. 

3. Incorporate active learning into your teaching practice. For lectures, pause after 12 minutes for students to discuss in pairs and rework their notes. For student-centered approaches, incorporate Kagan and cooperative learning structures.

To learn more about learner-centered classrooms, visit these websites:

• Alternative views. http://www.teawithbvp.com  (Episode 71)

• Flexible seating configurations. https://www.steelcase.com/research/articles/topics/active-learning/how-classroom-design-affects-student-engagement  

• Kagan structures. https://www.kaganonline.com/free_articles/dr_spencer_kagan/281/Kagan-Structures-A-Miracle-of-Active-Engagement 

Aspects of ALE are also addressed by other chapters in this book:

Chapter 2 Enhancing Learners’ Social Emotional Learning by G. Mendoza

Chapter 7 Embracing Young Learners by M. Gandolfo, B. Damiani, and L. Caperochipe

Chapter 14 Promoting Thinking Skills to Enhance Language Learning by K. Sandi

Chapter 20 Creating an ELT Classroom Community by B. Crosbie and D. Carter

Chapter 21 Connecting Student Interaction With Classroom Management by G. Mendoza

Chapter 28 Teaching English to Young Learners Through Authentic Literature by S. Ruffinelli and C. Ortiz 

Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development.

Brame, C. J. (2016). Active learning. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.

Chamot, A. (2009). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.

Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Herrera, S., & Murry, K. (2016). Mastering ESL/EFL methods: Differentiated instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students (3rd ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.2307/327317

Kagan, S. (2013). Kagan cooperative learning structures: Minibook. Kagan Publishing.

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press.

Lindgren, A. (1950). Pippi Longstocking. The Viking Press.

Ovando, C. J., & Combs, M. C. (2018). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts (6th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

Scott-Webber, L., Strickland, A., & Kapitula, L. (2014, June 1). How classroom design affects engagement. Steelcase. https://www.steelcase.com/research/articles/topics/active-learning/how-classroom-design-affects-student-engagement 

VanPatten, B. (2017). While we’re on the topic: BVP on language, acquisition, and classroom practice. American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. 

Heather Kaiser is an ESL and Spanish teacher in Birmingham, Alabama (USA). Heather holds graduate degrees in Latin American Studies and Hispanic linguistics as well as a master’s degree in ESL education (University of Alabama at Birmingham). Heather has taught beginning to advanced levels of Spanish at King University, the University of Florida, and Samford University. She has served as an Ambassadorial Rotary Scholar in Ecuador and conducted doctoral research on linguistic politeness in Uruguay. A lifelong learner, Heather continues to investigate how learners best learn new languages. 

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7070-4049  

Email for correspondence regarding this chapter: hrkaiser@outlook.com

Cover Photo by Van Tay Media on Unsplash