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SARANA KOMUNIKASI AKADEMIK
Quantitative Researach in Education
Quantitative Researach in Education
Introduction to quantitative research
Introduction to quantitative research
What is quantitative research?
Foundations of quantitative research methods
When do we use quantitative methods?
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Experimental and quasi-experimental research
Experimental and quasi-experimental research
Types of quantitative research
How to design an experimental study
Advantages and disadvantages of experimental research in education
Quasi-experimental designs
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Designing non-experimental studies
Designing non-experimental studies
Survey research
Observational research
Analysing existing datasets
Summary
Exercises
Appendix 3.1 Example of a descriptive form
Appendix 3.2 Rating the quality of interactions between teachers and pupils
Validity, reliability and generalisability
Validity, reliability and generalisability
Validity
Reliability
Generalisability
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Introduction to SPSS and the dataset
Introduction to SPSS and the dataset
Introduction to SPSS
Summary
Exercises
Univariate statistics
Univariate statistics
Introduction
Frequency distributions
Levels of measurement
Measures of central tendency
Measures of spread
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Bivariate analysis: comparing two groups
Bivariate analysis: comparing two groups
Introduction
Cross tabulation – looking at the relationship between nominal and ordinal variables
The t-test: comparing the means of two groups
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Bivariate analysis: looking at the relationship between two variables
Bivariate analysis: looking at the relationship between two variables
The relationship between two continuous variables: Pearson’s r correlation coefficient
Spearman’s rho rank-order correlation coefficient: the relationship between two ordinal variables
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Multivariate analysis: using multiple linear regression to look at the relationship between several predictors and one dependent variable
Multivariate analysis: using multiple linear regression to look at the relationship between several predictors and one dependent variable
Introduction
What is multiple linear regression?
Doing regression analysis in SPSS
Using ordinal and nominal variables as predictors
Diagnostics in regression
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
Using analysis of variance to compare more than two groups
Using analysis of variance to compare more than two groups
Want is ANOVA?
Doing ANOVA in SPSS
The effect size measure
Using more than one independent variable
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
One step beyond: introduction to multilevel modelling and structural equation modelling
One step beyond: introduction to multilevel modelling and structural equation modelling
Multilevel modelling
Structural equation modelling
Summary
Exercises
Further reading
References
Research Methods and Statistics
Research Methods and Statistics
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Part I:Understanding Research 1
Part I:Understanding Research 1
Psychology, Science, and Life 1
Why Are Research Methods Important Tools for Life?
Creating Knowledge 3 / Answering Important Questions
Why We Do Research
Description 4 / Explanation 5 / Prediction 6 / Control 6
What Constitutes Scientific Knowledge?
Science Is Objective 8 / Science Is Data Driven 9 / Science Is
Replicable and Verifiable 9 / Science Is Public
The Interaction of Science and Culture
The Government’s Role in Science 11 / Cultural Values and Science 11
Scientific Literacy
Science and Pseudoscience 14 / Warning Signs of Bogus
Science 15 / Junk Science 18
Chapter Summary 18
Key Terms 19
Chapter Review Questions 20
Part II: The First Steps in Conducting Research 23
Part II: The First Steps in Conducting Research 23
Ethics in Research 23
Unethical Research Practices—Past and Present 25
Ethical Problems in the Early Years of the Twentieth Century 25 / Ethics
and Plagiarism 27 / Current Examples of Unethical Research 28
Ethical Guidelines Created by the American Psychological Association 29
Aspirational Goals and Enforceable Rules 29 / Ethical Standards as They
Affect You 30
Legal Requirements and Ethics in Research 33
Institutional Review Boards 34
viii Contents
The Importance of Social Context in Deciding on Ethics in Research 35
Stanley Milgram’s Research Project on Obedience 36 / The Ethical
Issues 36 / The Social Context 37
What You Need to Do if Your Research Involves Deception 38
Some Research Requires Deception 39 / The Effects of Debriefing
on Research 40
Ethical Issues in Special Circumstances 42
Ethics in Cross-Cultural Research 42 / Ethics in Internet
Research 42 / Ethics in Animal Research 43
Chapter Summary 45
Key Terms 46
Chapter Review Questions 46
Planning Research: Generating a Question 51
Where Research Ideas Begin: Everyday Observations
and Systematic Research 52
Informal and Formal Sources of Ideas 53 / The Effect of Theory 55
How Can You Develop Research Ideas? 58
Generating Research Hypotheses 59
The Virtual Laboratory: Research on the Internet 59
Internet Research 61 / Respondent Motivation 64 / Advantages
to Web-Based Research 64 / Potential Problems with Web-Based
Research 65 / The Future of the Internet in Psychology 66
Checking on Research: The Role of Replication 66
Don’t Reinvent the Wheel: Reviewing the Literature 68
What Is a Literature Review? 69 / The Effect of Peer Review
on the Research Literature 69
How to Conduct a Literature Review 71
Electronic Databases 71 / Starting Your Search 71 / Different
Sources of Information 73
How to Read a Journal Article 74
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper 74
Chapter Summary 77
Key Terms 78
Chapter Review Questions 78
Contents ix
Practical Issues in Planning Your Research 81
Practical Questions in Planning Research 82
Different Ways of Studying Behavior 83
Measuring Complex Concepts 83 / The Importance of Culture and Context
in Defining Variables 84 / Carrying Out a Literature Search 86
Conducting Your Study 87
Determining the Research Setting 88 / Approaches to Psychological
Research 88 / Selecting Research Materials and Procedures 90 / Why
Methodology Is Important 92
Choosing Your Participants or Subjects 93
The Nature of Your Participants 94 / Deciding How Many Participants
to Include 94
Can Rats, Mice, and Fish Help Us Understand Humans? 96
Probability Sampling 97
Simple Random Sampling 98 / Systematic Sampling 98 / Stratified
Random Sampling 98 / Cluster Sampling 99
Nonprobability Sampling 99
Convenience Sampling 99 / Quota Sampling 100 / Purposive
( Judgmental) Sampling 100 / Chain-Referral Sampling 100
Chapter Summary 101
Key Terms 101
Chapter Review Questions 102
Organizing Data with Descriptive Statistics 105
Using Statistics to Describe Results 106
Descriptive Statistics 106
Scales of Measurement 107 / Measures of Central
Tendency 109 / Distributions of Scores 111 / Measures
of Variability 113 / Summarizing Data 118
Computer Analysis Using SPSS 119
Generating Descriptive Statistics 119 / Illustrating Descriptive
Statistics 120
Chapter Summary 125
Key Terms 125
Chapter Review Questions 125
Part III: Creating Experiments 129
Part III: Creating Experiments 129
Conducting an Experiment: General Principles 129
Choosing a Methodology: The Practicalities of Research 130
Determining the Causes of Behavior 131
Trying to Determine Causation in Research 131 / Requirements for
Cause–EffectRelationships 131 / Internal and External Validity 132
The Logic of Experimental Manipulation 135
Experimental Control 136
Threats to Internal Validity 136 / Lack of Control in Experimental
Research: Extraneous Variables and Confounds 138
Experimenter Effects 142
Participant Effects 142
The Hawthorne Effect 143
Interaction Effects Between Experimenters and Participants 144
Biosocial and Psychosocial Effects 144
Realism in Research 144
Chapter Summary 145
Key Terms 146
Chapter Review Questions 146
Basic Inferential Statistics 149
Probability 150
Hypothesis Testing 151
Decisions in Statistical Hypothesis Testing 153 / Normal
Distribution 156 / SamplingDistributions 157 /
Single Sample z Test 162 / Steps in Hypothesis Testing 164 /
Single Sample t Test 166
Computer Analysis Using SPSS 171
Chapter Summary 173
Key Terms 173
Chapter Review Questions 174
Contents xi
Looking for Differences Between Two Treatments 177
Statistical Testing for Two Independent Groups 178
Stating the Hypothesis 179 / Significance Testing 180 / Confidence
Intervals 185
Statistical Testing for Related and Repeated Measures 187
Stating the Hypothesis 187 / Significance Testing 188 /
ConfidenceIntervals 190 / Advantages of Repeated Measures
Designs 192 / Limitations of RepeatedMeasures Designs 195
Computer Analysis Using SPSS 196
Independent Samples t Test 196 / Related Samples t Test 197
Chapter Summary 199
Key Terms 200
Chapter Review Questions 200
Looking for Differences Among Multiple Treatments 203
Statistical Testing for Multiple Treatments 204
Statistical Testing for Multiple Groups 205
Stating the Hypothesis 205 / Significance Testing 207 / Post
Hoc Analyses 214 / Effect Size 217 / Computer Analysis Using
SPSS 217
Statistical Testing for Repeated Measures 220
Stating the Hypothesis 221 / Significance Testing 222 / Post
Hoc Analyses 227 / Effect Size 227 / Computer Analysis Using
SPSS 228
Chapter Summary 231
Key Terms 232
Chapter Review Questions 232
Multiple Independent Variables: Factorial Designs 235
Factorial ANOVA 236
Stating the Hypotheses 237 / Partitioning Variance 238
Calculating the Factorial ANOVA 239
TOTAL Variance 239 / TREATMENT Variance 240 / ERROR
Variance 245 / F Statistics 247 / Determining Significance
248 / Post Hoc Analyses 250 / Effect Size 251
xii Contents
Computer Analysis Using SPSS 252
Chapter Summary 254
Key Terms 254
Chapter Review Questions 254
Part IV: Correlational and Nonexperimental Research 257
Principles of Survey Research 257
Surveys: Answering Diverse Questions 258
Census Versus Sample 259 / Accuracy of Survey Results 260
Anonymity and Confidentiality in Survey Research 261
Selecting Your Methodology 263
Question Types 264 / Question Content 264
Response Bias 270
Studying Sensitive Issues 271 / Social Desirability 272 /
Acquiescence 273 / Satisficing VersusOptimizing 273 / Minimizing
the Occurrence of Satisficing 275
Sampling Issues 275
Finding Hidden Populations 276
Chapter Summary 277
Key Terms 277
Chapter Review Questions 278
Correlation, Regression, and Non-Parametric Tests 281
Correlational Studies 282
Correlational Analyses 282
Traditional Correlation Tests 283 / Pearson’s r 284
Regression 291
Multiple Regression 293
Chi-Square Goodness of Fit 295
Chi-Square Test of Independence 298
Strength of Association 300
Computer Analysis Using SPSS 301
Correlation 301 / Regression 302 / Chi-Square 302
Contents xiii
Chapter Summary 306
Key Terms 306
Chapter Review Questions 307
Research in Depth: Longitudinal and Single-Case
Studies 311
Longitudinal Research 312
Common Themes in Longitudinal Research 312 / Cross-Sectional Versus
Longitudinal Research 313
Varieties of Longitudinal Research 314
Trend Studies 314 / Cohort Studies 316 / Cohort Sequential
Studies 317 / Panel Studies 318
Issues in Longitudinal Designs 320
Retrospective and Prospective Studies 320 / Attrition 321
Single-Subject Experimentation 324
Experimental Analysis of Behavior 325
Methods of Single-Case Designs 325
Withdrawal Designs 325 / Single-Subject Randomized Controlled
Trials 326 / Strengths of Single-Participant Designs 326 /
Weaknesses of Single-Participant Designs 327 / Misunderstandings
About Single-Case Research 327
Case Studies 328
A Case Study with Experimental Manipulations: Tasting Pointed Chickens
and Seeing Colored Numbers 329
Chapter Summary 330
Key Terms 330
Chapter Review Questions 331
Part V: Culture and Research 333
People Are Different: Considering Cultural and Individual
Differences in Research 333
Different Cultural Perspectives 335
What Is Culture? 335
Defining an Individual’s Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 336
Criteria for Inclusion in a Group 337 / Social Issues and Cultural
Research 338
xiv Contents
Cross-Cultural Concepts in Psychology 339
Are Psychological Constructs Universal? 339 / Issues in Cross-Cultural
Research 341
Is There a Biological Basis for Race? 342
The Criteria for Race 342 / Current Biological Insights Regarding
Race 343 / Historical Error 343 / Current Controversies 345
Practical Issues in Cultural Research 345
Lack of Appropriate Training Among Researchers 345
Why the Concepts of Culture and Ethnicity Are Essential in Research 346
Differences Due to Language and Thought Processes 346 / Differences
in Simple and Complex Behaviors 347 / Is Culture-Free Theory Really
Free of Culture? 348 / Similarities and Differences within the Same
Culture 348
Cultural Factors in Mental Health Research 349
Content Validity 349 / Translation Problems 350 / Cross-Cultural
Norms 351 / Cross-Cultural Diagnoses 351
Sex and Gender: Do Men and Women Come from Different Cultures? 353
Stereotypes and Gender-Related Performance 353
Chapter Summary 354
Key Terms 355
Chapter Review Questions 355
Appendix A Writing a Research Report 359
Appendix B Developing an Oral Presentation 387
Appendix C Creating a Poster 389
Appendix D Answers to Chapter Review Questions 393
Appendix E Statistical Tables 409
References 421
Index 441
STATISTICS FORRESEARCH
STATISTICS FORRESEARCH
THIRD EDITIONShirley Dowdy
Stanley WeardonWest Virgini a Universi ty
Departme nt of Statis tics and Comput er Science
Morganto wn, WVDaniel ChilkoWest Virgini a Universi ty
Departme nt of Statis tics and Comput er Science
Morganto wn, WVA JOHN WILE Y & SONS, INC. PUBLICA TION
CONTENTS
Preface to the Third Edition ix
Preface to the Second Edition xiii
Preface to the First Edition xv
1 The Role of Statistics 1
1 The Role of Statistics 1
1.1 The Basic Statistical Procedure 1
1.2 The Scientific Method 11
1.3 Experimental Data and Survey Data 19
1.4 Computer Usage 20
Review Exercises 21
Selected Readings 22
2 Populations, Samples, and Probability Distributions 25
2 Populations, Samples, and Probability Distributions 25
2.1 Populations and Samples 25
2.2 Random Sampling 27
2.3 Levels of Measurement 30
2.4 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 33
2.5 Expected Value and Variance of a Probability Distribution 39
Review Exercises 47
Selected Readings 47
3 Binomial Distributions 49
3 Binomial Distributions 49
3.1 The Nature of Binomial Distributions 49
3.2 Testing Hypotheses 59
3.3 Estimation 70
3.4 Nonparametric Statistics: Median Test 77
Review Exercises 78
Selected Readings 80
4 Poisson Distributions 81
4 Poisson Distributions 81
4.1 The Nature of Poisson Distributions 81
4.2 Testing Hypotheses 84
4.3 Estimation 87
4.4 Poisson Distributions and Binomial Distributions 90
Review Exercises 93
Selected Readings 94
5 Chi-Square Distributions 95
5 Chi-Square Distributions 95
5.1 The Nature of Chi-Square Distributions 95
5.2 Goodness-of-Fit Tests 104
5.3 Contingency Table Analysis 108
5.4 Relative Risks and Odds Ratios 117
5.5 Nonparametric Statistics: Median Test for Several Samples 121
Review Exercises 124
Selected Readings 125
6 Sampling Distribution of Averages 127
6 Sampling Distribution of Averages 127
6.1 Population Mean and Sample Average 127
6.2 Population Variance and Sample Variance 132
6.3 The Mean and Variance of the Sampling Distribution of Averages 138
6.4 Sampling Without Replacement 143
Review Exercises 144
Review Exercises 144
7 Normal Distributions 147
7 Normal Distributions 147
7.1 The Standard Normal Distribution 147
7.2 Inference From a Single Observation 152
7.3 The Central Limit Theorem 155
7.4 Inferences About a Population Mean and Variance 157
7.5 Using a Normal Distribution to Approximate Other Distributions 164
7.6 Nonparametric Statistics: A Test Based on Ranks 173
Review Exercises 176
Selected Readings 177
8 Student’s t Distribution 179
8 Student’s t Distribution 179
8.1 The Nature of t Distributions 179
8.2 Inference About a Single Mean 182
8.3 Inference About Two Means 190
8.4 Inference About Two Variances 197
8.5 Nonparametric Statistics: Matched-Pair and Two-Sample Rank Tests 204
Review Exercises 209
Selected Readings 210
9 Distributions of Two Variables 211
9 Distributions of Two Variables 211
9.1 Simple Linear Regression 211
9.2 Model Testing 223
9.3 Inferences Related to Regression 233
9.4 Correlation 238
9.5 Nonparametric Statistics: Rank Correlation 250
9.6 Computer Usage 253
9.7 Estimating Only One Linear Trend Parameter 256
Review Exercises 262
Selected Readings 263
vi CONTENTS
10 Techniques for One-way Analysis of Variance 265
10 Techniques for One-way Analysis of Variance 265
10.1 The Additive Model 265
10.2 One-Way Analysis-of-Variance Procedure 272
10.3 Multiple-Comparison Procedures 283
10.4 One-Degree-of-Freedom Comparisons 294
10.5 Estimation 300
10.6 Bonferroni Procedures 303
10.7 Nonparametric Statistics: Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA for Ranks 309
Review Exercises 313
Selected Readings 314
11 The Analysis-of-Variance Model 317
11 The Analysis-of-Variance Model 317
11.1 Random Effects and Fixed Effects 317
11.2 Testing the Assumptions for ANOVA 324
11.3 Transformations 329
Review Exercises 337
Selected Readings 338
12 Other Analysis-of-Variance Designs 341
12 Other Analysis-of-Variance Designs 341
12.1 Nested Design 341
12.2 Randomized Complete Block Design 350
12.3 Latin Square Design 360
12.4 a b Factorial Design 368
12.5 a b c Factorial Design 376
12.6 Split-Plot Design 387
12.7 Split Plot with Repeated Measures 398
Review Exercises 407
Selected Readings 408
13 Analysis of Covariance 409
13 Analysis of Covariance 409
13.1 Combining Regression with ANOVA 409
13.2 One-Way Analysis of Covariance 413
13.3 Testing the Assumptions for Analysis of Covariance 418
13.4 Multiple-Comparison Procedures 423
Review Exercises 428
Selected Readings 429
14 Multiple Regression and Correlation 431
14 Multiple Regression and Correlation 431
14.1 Matrix Procedures 431
14.2 ANOVA Procedures for Multiple Regression and Correlation 439
14.3 Inferences About Effects of Independent Variables 444
14.4 Computer Usage 451
14.5 Model Fitting 458
14.6 Logarithmic Transformations 475
14.7 Polynomial Regression 484
CONTENTS vii
14.8 Logistic Regression 495
Review Exercises 507
Selected Readings 508
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