Behaviorism

In the late 19th into early 20th centuries, the behaviorism theory was developed as the scientific research of behavior in psychology. The researchers tried to explain it through human and animal behaviors in response to external stimuli and their connection to repeated reinforcements. Later it was applied to other study areas beyond psychology.

We will zoom into how behaviorism relates to instructional design.

Unknown author, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Classical Conditioning

Have you heard of the phrase Pavlov’s dogs?

You may think of conditioning someone to behave a certain way like training a dog.

A Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov witnessed his dog salivating at the sight of a person who fed him and trained the dog to associate foods and the sound of a metronome (Sprouts, 2020). After presenting food [unconditioned stimulus] + metronome [conditioned stimuli] repeatedly, the dog learned to link as metronome = food [conditioned response] while the metronome wasn’t something the dog can eat. Pavlov identified a fundamental associative learning process called classical conditioning (Walinga & Stangor, 2014).

Operant Conditioning

J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner built their research method through the observation of externally measurable behaviors over the introspective method that predominated in psychology at that time. They both researched and proposed new forms of learning, arguing classical conditioning is too simplistic to illustrate the complex nature of mental events in learning. They looked into the cause and effect of learning behavior and coined the term operant conditioning (McLeod, 2018).

Operant conditioning is a method to know how the consequence of a response shapes the probability of repeating the same response pattern. When the behavior is reinforced, it’s likely to be repeated to gain a reward in return; when the behavior is punished, it’s likely to be discouraged and become less frequent (McLeod, 2018).

Watson watched a human baby learn from the consequences and form new actions in response to the stimuli.

Skinner created A Skinner Box to observe how a rat responds to positive/negative reinforcement and positive/negative punishment (Escudero, 2018).

Reinforcement increases certain behaviors. “In positive reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened by rewards, learning to the repetition of desired behavior” (McLeod, 2018). As the hungry rat accidentally hit a lever that dispensed food, that rat learned to adjust behaviors to go straight to pushing a lever for food repeatedly.

“Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a behavior” (McLeod, 2018). Also known as Escape or Avoidance Learning refers to a learned behavior to stop the cause of unpleasant sensations. The boxed rat was quick to learn to push another lever to stop the electric current, which the rat didn’t like.

On the flip side of reinforcement, punishment weakens certain undesirable behaviors and also has positive and negative sides. However, the punishing approach tends to invoke aggression and fear naturally in our minds; it is no longer appropriate to utilize them in our learning environment.

Unknown author, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

B.F. Skinner at Harvard circa 1950 by Silly rabbit is licensed under CC BY 3.0.

B.F. Skinner (1904-90)

So, how does Behaviorism apply to us?

We, humans, are also no strangers to the above examples. Humans respond well to pleasurable stimuli and tend to seek them over and over. On the other hand, we react poorly to unpleasant stimuli and try to avoid them together.

Those conditions etch into behavioral patterns; hence, we automatically respond to stimuli based on what we experienced in the past.

Behaviorism in Education

Now, let’s have a look at how behaviorism translates in the educational setting. Although I agree with many fellow instructional designers that our learning consists of more than a mere behaviorism-based approach, it still provides us with a useful perspective in educational settings. Keramida (2015) breaks down the characteristics and techniques of behaviorism in education; they can be summarized as follows:

Characteristics

Basic assumption—knowledge is objective. (e.g., facts, standardized procedures)
Focus on guiding learners to follow a predetermined path.
A single correct answer.
Measurable outcomes.
Learning is considered to happen when the learner grasps the expected learning objectives.
Providing appropriate stimuli to learners.
Feedback during the course is positive reinforcement.

Techniques

Discrimination—classify concepts into a specific category. (e.g., Drag-and-Drop exercise)
Generalization—identify common characteristics and formulate the rule. (e.g., teaching through examples)
Association—linking new information (stimuli) to a specific practical application (response) based on an established reference point.
Chaining—presenting a model first, then learners repeat the same steps. (e.g., drill tasks)

Strengths and Limitations of Behaviorism

Good for memorization of facts and standardized procedures (Keramida, 2015).
For training that requires immediate responses to urgent situations.
A fast, effective route to reach the learning targets through a predefined learning path.
Easy to track observable outcomes as completion of the learning.

Does not take into account cognition, mental processes, emotions, or the environment in the learning process (Keramida, 2015).
Initial behavioral change is limited to one person who is learning.
Although behavioral change generates new actions, it does not encourage higher-level thinking, such as creative problem-solving.

Behaviorism in Instructional Design

Motivations

As humans, we want gold stars in return for our efforts in learning. When one designs instruction, incorporating appropriate stimuli and feedback with positive reinforcements modify behaviors in the desired direction (Etmer & Newby, 2013): come back and progress. Behaviorism emphasizes repeating behavior. Reinforcements encourage us to take well-beaten paths again and again to become masterful.

Possible applications

Memorizing facts / learning language / early education / learning manual skills / answering yes or no questions / occupational training that requires immediate responses / direct instruction (DI) / personalized system of instruction (PSI)

Learners

♦ Blank slate.

♦ The passive receiver of directions.

♦ Expected to follow instructions.

♦ Motivated by extrinsic reward or avoiding punishment.

♦ Repeat the same process until they have mastered the skill.

Teachers

♦ Instruct learners with clear targets and expectations.

♦ Provide appropriate stimuli to draw desired responses.

♦ Measure observable goals.

♦ Use a variety of reinforcements to encourage learning habits (McLeod, 2018).

♦ Set reinforcement schedules to reduce the extinction of prior learning.

Learning Scenario 1

An article describes an example of behaviorism in games: “Behavioristic principles are also still applicable in gamification, which is presenting the learning material by employing game design elements in an entertaining way in order to motivate and engage the audience throughout the learning process” (Keminda, 2015).

This clearly explains why I like to check in to Duolingo after dinner every day. At the beginning of 2022, I set out to learn French to visit there during the summer, which became a forefront external motivation. The stimuli are nagging text messages in funny ways. The contents are structured by a game-based interface, and the responses are answering quizzes to progress through units. A few positive reinforcement features include badges, leagues, and a day counter called a streak. If I miss a day, then negative reinforcement kicks in—I should spend 200 gems (that’s a pain!) to get back on track.

Operant conditioning in action!

Learning Scenario 2

A remote workplace scenario in behaviorism

As a new tech project manager at an organization in the US, Kelly is assigned to an app development team consisting of remote UX designers and software developers. Many of her collaborators reside in various places all over the world, and she finds it hard to communicate when the work environment is limited to online, and miscommunications often end up rework of the project. Following her mentor’s recommendation, she is taking online communication training to understand the difference between in-person and online work environments and to gain insights into possible solutions to minimize the gap. The training is structured with lectures and games to gauge understanding of the topic and quizzes throughout the course.

Stimulus: Each game-based quiz assesses her understanding.

Response: Answering quizzes gives points toward the final score. She is quickly gaining actionable communication tips as she moves on to the training.

Positive reinforcement: She likes the playfulness of the game portion of the training. An article describes this: “Behavioristic principles are also still applicable in gamification, which is presenting the learning material by employing game design elements in an entertaining way in order to motivate and engage the audience throughout the learning process.” (Keminda, 2015).

Negative reinforcement: Without the training, she couldn’t adjust her approach toward her team. To avoid rework of the project, she wants to set up the team for success.

Pros:

A fast, effective route to reach the learning targets through a predefined training path.
Easy to track observable outcomes as completion of the training.

Cons:

Initial behavioral change is limited to one person who took the training.
Although behavioral change generates new responses, it doesn’t always encourage autonomous problem-solving.
Ultimately, team collaboration is likely to increase, but unless it has been set to be measurable, the final goal beyond the behavioral change is easily overlooked. An article states that “Behaviorists do not emphasize thinking or other mental activities as a part of the learning process because such variables are not observable behaviors.” (Clark, 2018).

In the end

I believe behaviorism in instructional design is useful when we want to establish learning habits that progress gradually over time. After all, learning takes time and effort. Interweaving behaviorism in instructional design is effective in structuring the foundational framework of learning.

Continue to Constructivism >>

References

Escudero, O. (2018, Nov 28). B. F. Skinner Operant Conditioning [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuQvCxsa5Ns&t=238s&ab_channel=ZoilaTovar-Blank

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143

Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center. (n.d.). Behaviorism. Berkeley Graduate Division. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/behaviorism/

Graham, G. (2019). Behaviorism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Z. (ed.) https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/

Keramida, M. (2015). Behaviorism in instructional design for eLearning: When and how to use it. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/behaviorism-in-instructional-design-for-elearning-when-and-how-to-use

McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 21). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

Skinner, F.B. (1950). Classics in the History of Psychology. York University. Green, D. G. (ed.) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories/

Sprouts. (2020, May 30). Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jd7Jdug5SRc&ab_channel=Sprouts

Walinga, J., & Stangor, C. (2014). Introduction to Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition. BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/7-1-learning-by-association-classical-conditioning/

Photo credit

Silly rabbit. (n.d.). B.F. Skinner at Harvard circa 1950. [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:B.F._Skinner_at_Harvard_circa_1950.jpg

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