This can include the correction of sentence fragments (incomplete sentences, unless a fragment is intentional in order to achieve some rhetorical effect), ensuring proper combination of sentences and words (be sure to review subordinating and coordinating conjunctions and their uses), making sure all sentences are parallel (when clauses are grammatically equal a writer has achieved parallelism), and the correct placement of modifiers (be wary of dangling or misplaced modifiers).
Watch out for sentences that incorrectly shift tenses, which would require you to edit the verb into the correct form. For example, you may have to change a verb from present continuous (studying) to past tense (studied) in order to follow the pattern already established in the sentence. Incorrect shifts can also occur with pronouns and numbers, such as a writer changing from first-person to third-person in the same passage.
A referent is a word or phrase that refers to something else (an antecedent). Problems with referents can cause confusion and, sometimes, unintended humor. Problems with references occur primarily (1) when sentences have more than one possible antecedent (often caused by placing the referent too far from the intended antecedent); or (2) when the antecedent is only implied. Here are examples problems with references.
More than one possible antecedent:
The doctors told their patients that they had serious problems. [Who had problems?]
To prevent children from sucking their thumbs, some parents soak them in tabasco sauce. [Do the parents soak the children or the thumbs?]
The corporate officers had failed to disclose the serious conflicts of interest caused by their ownership of several of T&J's suppliers. The possibility of a bankruptcy was a disaster for them. [Was the possibility a disaster for the officers, the conflicts, or the suppliers?]
Referring to an antecedent that is only implied:
The corporate officers had failed to disclose the serious conflict of interest raised by the possible bankruptcy of T&J's primary supplier. This was a disaster for the officers. [What was a disaster -- the failure to disclose, the conflict, or the possible bankruptcy?]
Notice that the confusing reference in this last example is caused by using "this" alone. Using the pronoun "this" or "that" without a noun following immediately is usually inadvisable. Here, for instance, the confusion could be resolved easily by adding the clarifying noun after "this":
The corporate officers had failed to disclose the serious conflict of interest raised by the possible bankruptcy of T&J's primary supplier. This failure was a disaster for the officers.
The three primary strategies for solving reference problems are: (1) repeating the antecedent (as in the prior example); (2) re-arranging the material to place the referent close to the antecedent; or (3) rearranging the material to eliminate the need for the referent. For instance, here is another possible solution to the reference problem above:
The possibility of a bankruptcy was a disaster for the corporate officers. They had failed to disclose the serious conflicts of interest caused by their ownership of several of T&J's suppliers.
Writers use pronouns to re-label nouns they have already introduced. Examples of pronouns are he, she, it, me, whom, us, mine, etc. Be sure to review the complete list of pronouns. Clarity of pronouns is essential for writers because lack of clarity causes confusion for the reader, and the point of the writing will be lost. One common error in clarity includes which noun is being referenced. For example:
Susan asked Sharon to help plan the reunion. However, she didn’t show up to the meeting.
In this sentence, who is she?
The point of view must remain consistent within a sentence. Look at this example:
Eric gave his employees the company memo. But you forgot to give a memo to Sandra.
There was a change from third person POV, he, to second person POV, you.
Be careful to reflect the subject of the sentence when choosing a pronoun. Here’s one example:
The box of printer paper reams was finally delivered. The typists already used them.
The pronoun them should be it, since the noun being referred to is the box.
These tell us when something is owned. Possessive pronouns can be identified because they replace the noun, whereas possessive determiners are used in conjunction with the noun. For example:
The black Samsung is her phone.
Her is a possessive determiner because it is used with the noun phone. It is determining who owns the phone.
The black Samsung is hers.
Hers is a possessive pronoun because it completely replaces the noun phone while identifying who owns the phone.
Be sure to review the different types of possessives and make sure not to confuse possessives with contractions (its versus it’s, your versus you’re, etc.).
A quick Google search will reward you with complete lists of agreement errors and ways to fix them, but common places to find agreement errors are between the subject and the verb and between the pronoun and the noun it is replacing (called an antecedent). Here are some examples:
The bag of apples are in the kitchen.
This is incorrect because the singular subject bag requires a singular verb is, rather than are.
Sarah bought a carton of eggs so she could use them in the bake-off.
This is incorrect because the singular subject carton requires a singular pronoun it, rather than them.
Even the best writers can sometimes use the wrong word in a sentence, but this leads to confusion and frustration for the reader. As the editor, you must be wary of frequently confused words in order to properly correct them. Words like affect and effect, or awhile and a while cannot be used interchangeably, no matter how similar they sound. Be sure to review commonly confused words to ensure you know the proper meanings. Here is one easy-to-use list of them.
Writers often make comparisons to strengthen or clarify a point. However, it is very important that the items being compared are alike, creating logical comparisons. When proofreading, watch for the signal word than, which often means a comparison is being made: “greater than,” “longer than,” “better than,” etc. Check out these examples of common comparison errors:
The beaches in Thailand are prettier than Florida. (INCORRECT)
The beaches in Thailand are prettier than the beaches in Florida. (CORRECT)
Because beaches and Florida are not like terms, it is illogical to compare them. Beaches must be compared to beaches.
Sarah’s term paper is longer than Billy. (INCORRECT)
Sarah’s term paper is longer than Billy’s term paper. (CORRECT)
Sarah’s term paper is longer than Billy’s. (CORRECT)
A term paper cannot be longer than a human, so it must be clear that Sarah’s paper is being compared to Billy’s paper, not Billy himself.
The quarterback of the college football team, Dan Jobson, is faster than any player on the team. (INCORRECT)
The quarterback of the college football team, Dan Jobson, is faster than any other player on the team. (CORRECT)
Always remember to use the words other or else when comparing someone to members of the same group. In the example above, the first sentence doesn’t use other, which means the sentence is comparing Dan to all players, including himself, since he is a part of the football team. Using other specifies that Dan is being compared to his teammates. See the next similar example that uses the word else.
The math teacher at Washington Academy is stricter than anyone on the faculty.
This is incorrect because the math teacher is a member of the faculty.
The math teacher at Washington Academy is stricter than anyone else on the faculty.
This is correct because of the word else.
An apostrophe is used to form a possessive or a contraction. Check for the following common apostrophe errors. The bracketed parenthetical demonstrates the correct use.
Possessive Nouns
Singular possessive nouns. Use 's to show that a singular noun is possessive [the defendant's motion]. You can apply this rule even when the singular noun already ends in "s" (Charles's costume) though many writers add only the apostrophe [Charles' shoes].
Plural possessive nouns not ending in "s." Use 's to show that a plural noun not ending in "s" is possessive [the children's toy].
Plural possessive nouns ending in "s." Add only an apostrophe to make plural nouns possessive [the boys' game].
Nouns that are not possessive. Do not add an apostrophe to a noun that is not possessive [the teachers (not teacher's or teachers') have claimed; the Joneses (not Jones' or Jones's) did not attend].
Possessive Personal Pronouns vs. Contractions
Apostrophe errors with possessive personal pronouns are common because possessive personal pronouns indicate possession and we are used to using apostrophes to indicate possession. Also possessive personal pronouns are easily confused with contractions. Here are the basic rules:
Possessive personal pronouns. Do not add an apostrophe to a possessive pronoun [the problem is hers (not her's); the corporation must disclose its (not it's) assets.]
Contractions. Do use an apostrophe in a contraction (it's time to go; you're the one).
Watch especially for errors in using "it's" or "its." Remember that "it's" means "it is" and "its" indicates ownership. Confusing these two words is the most common apostrophe error.
Commas are also major troublemakers. Watch for these situations:
Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, nor, so, for). [The child agreed, but the parent objected].
Use a semicolon or a period, not a comma, to separate two independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction [The child agreed; however, the parent objected.]. The following transitional words and phrases are conjunctive adverbs, not conjunctions: accordingly, however, also, moreover, consequently, on the other hand, for example, otherwise, for instance, similarly, furthermore, therefore, hence, thus
Therefore, do not use a comma to separate two independent clauses on either side of one of these words.
Incorrect: The city must increase its tax base, however, the citizens must be able to accept the additional tax burden.
Correct: The city must increase its tax base; however, the citizens must be able to accept the additional tax burden.
Conjunctive adverbs signal the relationship between the point(s) made in the material before their sentence and the material of that sentence. The words and phrases in the list above are examples. When you begin an independent clause with a conjunctive adverb or when you use it in the middle of a sentence, set it off with a comma.
Moreover, the defendant has not yet established a proper foundation for this testimony.
The student, moreover, has not yet turned in an acceptable project to meet his assignment’s requirements.
Use commas to set off the year if you also identify the day [The birth of Norma Kelly on June 2, 1974, brought the . . . .], but omit the commas otherwise [The birth of Norma Kelly in June 1974 brought . . . .].
Use commas to separate three or more simple items in a list. If the descriptions of the items are long or complex, use semicolons to separate them.
Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction unless the two independent clauses are short and simple:
Correct: The sunlight helped the flowers to grow, but they require frequent watering in order to stay alive. Correct: Yours is timely and mine is late.
Here are the most common errors in agreement:
The following indefinite pronouns are singular and take a singular verb:
The singular verb is correct even when the indefinite pronoun is followed by a prepositional phrase with a plural noun:
Each of these peaceful alternatives was [not "were"] ignored.
Either of the twins is [not "are"] available.
However, the following indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural, depending on the nouns or pronouns they refer to: all, any, none, some,
For example:
All [singers] are permitted . . . .
All of the money is counted . . . .
None of them are satisfied . . . .
None of the royalty was present . . . .
"The court" is a singular term, taking a singular pronoun:
The court overruled the traditional rule originally announced in December. It [not "They"] held that . . . .
This same kind of error can slip in when referring to any institution or business:
He said that he is very grateful to St. Catherine's Hospital. They treated him with respect.
The problem sometimes occurs because the writer is avoiding the awkwardness of attributing a human action to an "it." For instance, in the St. Catherine's example, the writer is probably avoiding "It treated him with respect." That problem can usually be solved by changing the antecedent to the humans who actually performed the action:
He said that he is very grateful to the staff at St. Catherine's Hospital. They treated him with respect.
Watch for both verb agreement and pronoun agreement when a singular subject is modified by a phrase or clause containing a plural noun:
The confidence of several families was [not were] attained.
Each of the groups agrees [not agree] to resolve the problem peacefully.
Every student who had already taken both courses is [not are] excused from this requirement.
Use a possessive pronoun before a gerund phrase. A gerund is an "ing" verb that serves as a noun. The gerund can stand alone or can begin a gerund phrase, but either way, the word or phrase functions as a noun:
Running is good for you.
Coming to work late can result in disciplinary action.
Since a gerund or gerund phrase functions as a noun, it takes a possessive pronoun:
We'll go to their house for the party instead of their [not them] coming to ours.
Where possible, similar ideas should be expressed in a similar (parallel) structure and grammatical form. Parallelism makes for easier reading and clearer meanings. It also improves sentence rhythm and cuts down on verbiage.
Parallel structure:
Parallelism makes for easier reading and clearer meanings.
"easier reading" and "clearer meanings" are parallel.
Non-parallel structure:
Problems occur when the business conceals relevant documents or by deluging the auditors with irrelevant documents.
In the non-parallel example, the writer identifies two situations in which problems occur; however, the two situations are phrased in non-parallel structure. A parallel structure would be:
Problems occur when the business conceals relevant documents or when they deluge the auditors with irrelevant documents.
Now that the structure is parallel, extra words can go:
Problems occur when the business conceals relevant documents or deluge the auditors with irrelevant documents.
Parallel structure is especially important in a list.
When the new commander arrived at the post, he immediately posted a new list of orders: no leaves were to be granted, and no leniency was to be given.
Use the subjective case for a pronoun that functions as the subject of an understood verb. The subjective case is the form the pronoun takes when used as the subject of the sentence ("I," "we," "they"). For example, consider these two sentences:
The corporation's president worked harder than me.
The corporation's president worked harder than I.
Which is correct? The second version is correct, because "I" is the subject of an understood verb "worked." In other words, the sentence is actually a shortened version of "The corporation's president worked harder than I worked."
This is an easy mistake to make because the correct case may sound wrong. If so, the best solution is to add the understood verb or to rephrase the sentence completely to avoid the awkwardness.
Use the subjective case for a pronoun that functions as the complement of a subject. A pronoun is a subjective complement when it actually equals the subject of the sentence. For example, consider these two sentences:
The person least anxious after the test was her.
The person least anxious after the test was she.
Which is correct? The second version is correct, because the pronoun in the predicate, "she," actually equals the subject, "the person least anxious after the test." In other words, the sentence is like an algebra equation: The person least anxious after the test = she. In a sentence like this one, the noun or pronoun in the predicate functions like the subject of the sentence. The sentence should read the same as if you turned it around:
She was the person least anxious after the test.
Once again, this is an easy mistake to make because the correct case may sound wrong. In spoken English we often hear "It's him," or "It's me." Again, the best solution may be to reverse the sentence or to re-phrase the sentence completely to avoid the awkwardness.
Use "try to" and "sure to" rather than "try and" or "sure and."
Incorrect: Ms. Thompson wanted to try and finish the project by Friday.
Correct: Ms. Thompson wanted to try to finish the project by Friday.
Incorrect: Be sure and pick up the baby from daycare.
Correct: Be sure to pick up the baby from daycare.
This rule makes sense if you think about it. The proper function of the word "and" is to connect two different things. Thus, the "and" in the first sentence should mean that Ms. Thompson wanted to do two different things, but she didn't; she only wanted to do one thing – finish the project. The same is true for the third sentence. The "and" seems to tell the reader that the sentence is an instruction to do two different things, but it isn't. The reader is only to do one thing – pick up the baby.
"Hopefully" is an adverb that explains how someone does something, as in "She asked hopefully." Often "hopefully" is misused in this or a similar fashion: "Hopefully the storm will pass." This use actually asserts that the storm’s passing will be full of hope. The writer actually means "I hope that the storm will pass."
Watch out for one more common error with adverbs: the difference between "I feel bad" and "I feel badly." In the first sentence, the writer is commenting on how she feels, either physically (perhaps she has the flu) or emotionally (perhaps she is sad). The first sentence is the proper use of "bad" as an adjective.
However, the second sentence uses "bad" in its form as an adverb. The writer is commenting on her ability to feel; perhaps her fingers are numb. Sometimes writers use the adverbial form "badly" when they mean "bad," perhaps believing that "badly" sounds more elevated.
Watch for errors in using "myself" instead of using "I" or "me." "Myself" is used as a reflective pronoun or as a device for emphasis.
Correct: I injured myself.
used as a reflective pronoun
Correct: I will draft the interrogatory answers myself.
used for emphasis
Each time "myself" is used, test the use by asking whether "I" or "me" could substitute for "myself." If so, using "myself" is incorrect.
Incorrect: Ms. Alpha and myself will meet you for lunch.
Incorrect: If you have any questions about this demonstration, contact Mr. Jones or myself.