● Contributed to scientific developments, including the development of the scientific method (inductive method)
● Advocated for the methodical use of:
○ Hypothesis
○ Controlled experimentation
● Clergyman and astronomer
● Published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies
○ Challenged old assumptions about the geocentric view of the universe (earth is center with planets, moon, sun surrounding it)
○ Introduced a new heliocentric view that the sun is the center and earth revolves around it
■ Based on logic not direct observations
● Assistant of Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe
● He continued Brahe’s work, but modified his views
● Created the 3 laws of planetary motion
1. Sun is in the center with planets revolving around it in elliptical orbits (heliocentric view)
2. When planets approach closer to the sun the movement gradually gets quicker
3. The time each planet takes to orbit the sun depends on the distance it is in proportion to the sun
● Italian scientist
● Used controlled experiments and mathematical formulas to create the laws of motion and inertia
● One of the first people to utilize a telescope to observe space and planets directly
● Had strong beliefs and support for the heliocentric view
● His ideas threatened the church and Pope Urban VII
○ Stood under trial when summoned in 1633 by the pope for torture
○ Admitted to support the Copernican theory thereafter
● French philosopher, scientist, mathematician
● Advocated for the deductive method
● Included logical reasoning
● Scientia: what is proven to be knowledge with absolute certainty
● Bacon’s inductive method and Descartes deductive method contributes to the Scientific method – observations, controlled experiments with use of factual and hypothetical reasoning, and mathematical formulas
● Published Principia consisting of:
○ Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
○ Galileo’s law of inertia and bodies falling downwards
○ His own view on gravity in one mathematical law of universal gravitation
● Saw universe as a machine created by God functioned under universal laws that can be explored to improve life
● Findings and concepts dominated Western thought until the discoveries of Albert Einstein
(reason > religion)
● Prince of the Philosophes
● Denounced religious bigotry → advocated for religious tolerance.
Reasoning: absence of bigotry and superstition; leaned more towards informed thinking
Nature and natural laws: universal laws discovered by human concept
Happiness: rejected medieval belief that humans should cope with misery and await for salvation
● Happiness is gained through inalienable rights
Progress: social progress → economic and governmental laws
Liberty: freedom of speech, religion, trade, liberty, expression, thoughts, etc.
Toleration: Philosophes advocated for religious toleration
● Precursor of romanticism
● Natural education in which children are exposed to happiness and freedom in schooling
● Be able to draw personal conclusions
● The General Will
○ The Social Contract treatise on politics and govt theories
○ Argued that individuals entered social contract with one another and not with rulers
○ Community over sovereign power
○ Removal of rulers that abuse powers or fail to carry people’s will
● Important note: dictators justified rule with general will
● Contrasted from other philosophes about emotions and spontaneous feelings rather than sharp logic (romantic)
● Encyclopedia
● Supported enlightened thinking about science, technology, mathematics, art, government
● “All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone’s feelings.”
● The Spirit of the Laws
● French nobleman and attorney – limited abuse of royal authority/absolutism
● Social sciences with natural sciences
● Advocated for separation of powers of legislative, executive, and judicial branches to restrain unlimited power over society
○ This idea of separation of powers influenced the Constitution
● Deism: belief that God was a cosmic watchmaker and controlled and created the universe
○ Intellects/elites believed in deism
● Reliance on reason over emotion and did not appeal to the general public
● “Pietism”: faith and emotion