● Nationalism: “being part of a community that includes a common language, traditions and costumes”
● Congress of Vienna and its Principles:
Principle of legitimacy: only legitimate rules should rule.
Balance of power: no state should dominate the continent
● Impact of the Congress of Vienna:
○ 1814, Quadruple Alliance (GB, Russian, Prussia, Austria). leader prince Klemens von Metternich
● Actual Polish kingdom was established - “Romanov dynasty”
● Restoration of the Bourbon family, the ruling family of France, starting with the King of England to the thrones of France and Spain.
● Prussia is given lands and therefore the Italian states are returned to their ruler.
● Austria is given control of Italian states of Lombardy.
○ Made to forestall any revolutionary attempts.
○ Met up periodically (4 meetings)
1818, Aix-la-Chapelle: added France to the concert of Europe, and withdrew the military of occupation from France.
1820, Troppau: dealt w/ the revolts in Italy and Spain (restoredBourbon Ferdinand I as a king of Naples and Sicily)
○ Principle of intervention: Great powers of Europe had the proper to send arms to countries where there have been rev. (GB refused)
1821, laibach: only Austria, Prussia and Russia met; sent armies to
Naples to suppress rebellion and restore Ferdinand I.
1822, verona: invasion of spain by france and restore ferdinand VIII.
GREEK REVOLUTION:
a. 1827 - GB and France sent fleets and defeated the ottomans.
b. 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople
c. 1830- Greek Independence
LATIN AMERICA:
a. Territories got freed slowly: full general liberated Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru and colombia.
b. Causes for the failure of conservatism in Spain:
i. Power vacuum
ii. Enlightenment ideas
iii. Hierarchy
iv. 100 years of oppression
GB: Landowning classes dominated both houses of Parliament
a. Monarchy was powerless.
b. Tories (dominated the gov’t) vs Whig (1st to receive support from the the
economic class)
c. The corn law: imposed high tariff on foreign grain
d. Peterloo Massacre (11 people killed in an exceedingly mass protest).
France: 1814, Bourbon family was restored (louis XVIII)
a. Accepted Napoleon civil code and established a bicameral legislature
b. Chamber of the peer: chosen by the king.
c. Chamber of deputies: chosen by electorate.
d. Ultra Royalists who wanted to revive church to its former position criticized king's willingness to compromise to retain the Napoleonic era.
e. Era of Charles X:
i. Granted indemnity to aristocrats
ii. Pursued religious policy which was the reestablishment of Christian church control over education
iii. He was forced to accept the principle of Ministerial responsibility (ministers were responsible to the legislature not the king.)
iv. However, in 1829, he violated his commitment, which led to the revolt by the deputies. Legislature dissolved
Italian states: Congress of Vienna established 9 states in Italy.
a. Much of Italy was dominated by Austrians.
b. Many nationalist societies planned for rev. (Carbonari)
Spain: Bourbon was also restored (Ferdinand VII)
a. Promised to look at the liberal constitution of 1812
i. Eventually tore it up and dissolved the cortes and prosecuted its members.
b. social class men revolted and that they captured him and he promised to revive the cortes (parliament assembly)
c. Metternich’s Policy of intervention saved Ferdinand. French army moved into Spain and compelled the revolutionary gov’t to escape from Madrid.
Germany: the Vienna settlement recognized 38 sovereign states.
a. German states were weak; Prussia and Austria were strong.
b. Germans favored liberal principles.
c. Burschenschaften student societies were made to foster the goal of a free, united Germany
i. Burned books by conservative authors at an assembly in 1817
ii. A student assassinated a reactionary playwright.
iii. As a result, Metternich drew up the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which closed the Burschenschaften
Austrian Empire: gov’t held together by the imperial civil service, the dynasty, and the catholic church.
a. Multinational under the Habsburg emperor
b. Germans were economically advanced.
c. Hungarians acted as forces to break down the empire.
Russia : Alexander I
a. Relaxed censorship.
b. Freed political prisoners
c. Reformed the educational systems
d. Didn’t abolish serfdom
e. Russia's government was an autocracy, which is a government in which there is unlimited power held by one person.
f. With Napoleonic invasion of Russia, French retreat is followed by Russian soldiers marching through Paris.
g. Alexander gains ⅘ of polish territory in congress of Vienna.
h. Discontent against him led by intelligentsia (Russian educated elite):
i. Fought to liberate Europe from Napoleon but denied such freedom at home.
ii. As a result of Catherine the Great's Golden age of Russian Nobility, nobles were now educated and didn't have to serve the Russian state.
iii. Fighting alongside the Emperor made that Tsar more accessible, and therefore, easier to blame.
iv. Fear of a revolution by Tsar Alexander II led him to be more of a tyrant.
1. By 1815, he became increasingly religious and proposed the Holy Alliance, alliance of all Christian kingdoms of Europe.
j. The Decembrist Revolt:
i. Who? Upper nobility and soldiers
ii. Why? Influx of western ideas wanted to be applied to Russia; opposed serfdom and aristocracy.
iii. What happened that led to the revolution? Grand Duke Constantine was crowned secretly. Nicholas I knew that and wanted to be the legitimate emperor by telling the people.
iv. Revolt: officers convinced the troops to not swear allegiance to Nicholas and when he found out, he had an army and shot civilians.
k. Nicholas I
i. The Nicholas system
ii. All power in his hands and aristocrats → extreme centralization
iii. Russia was socially and economically backward → needed to industrialize
iv. Secret police.
v. Russia’s administration was neglected.
● State is a partnership between the dead, the living, and the unborn
● Generations have to preserve the state and pass it down to future
● Change is gradual
● Favorite absolute monarchy
● Edmund Burke
● Being part of community
● Aroused after the French revolution
● Upsets political orders
● Nationalist and Liberals are allies
Early socialism:
● Needs of society >the needs of the individual
● Equality into social conditions
● No competition, rathr cooperation
Utopian socialism:
● Against private property
● Against competition
Fourier:
● Phalansteries (small communities)
● Self contained, cooperative, commonly housed work and live together for mutual benefit; however, unable to gain financial backing so it’s untested
Owen:
Humans can reveal their natural goodness.
Blanc:
Social problems solved by government assistance.
Flora Tristan:
Traveled to France, preaching the need for the liberation of women
Economic:
● Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo
● Laissez-faire: absence of involvement of government in economics
○ If individuals are granted economic liberty, benefits will come.
Political:
● Protection of civil liberties (equality before the law, freedom of assembly, speech and press)
● All of this freedom should be granted by a document
● Separation of the state in the church
● Peaceful opposition to the government
● Advocate for ministerial responsibility
● Limited suffrage (right to vote) and only men could hold office
● Not Democrats
● John S. Mill supported women’s rights
● Ignored the liberal and nationalists expiration of many nations.
● Underestimated the lingering effects of the French Revolution (legitimate monarchy, ignored advances made by French revolution)
● 1830 : Charles X issued new edicts called the July Ordinances
○ rigid censorship on press
○ dissolve the legislative assembly
○ reduced election rates
● Leading to the July revolution, Charles X fled to Britain + there was a new constitutionalist king Louis Philippe called “the bourgeoisie monarch”.
○ Established a constitutional monarchy
○ Favored middle class, not workers
○ End censorship of press
○ Believed that the king ruled by the will of the people, not God.
○ Upsets the middle bourgeoisie class because they were excluded from political power
○ French industry increased, and therefore, there is a growth in the industrial class
● Belgium = Was united with Holland by the Congress of Vienna. Wanted their independence from the Dutch and it ended in success because Great Britain and France supported their independence.
● Poland = revolted against Russia control but failed because Russia established an oppressive militaristic dictatorship.
● Italy = Austrian troops were sent to Italy to crush revolts.
● 1830 - Whigs came into power.
● 1832 - Election Reform bill
○ Reform act; Gave vote to the upper middle class, but not lower-class artisans and industrial workers
● 1846 - Anti-Corn Law league (Richard Cobden and John Bright) to help workers by reducing bread prices
● France struggled with agricultural and industrial depression.
● Louis Philippe’s government refused changes.
● Opposition grew and then he fled to Britain.
● Provisional government was established by a group of moderate and radical Republicans (created a Constitution elected by universal male suffrage)
● Resulted in a split between radical Republicans and moderate Republicans
○ National assembly had 500 seats, including the Moderate republic.
○ National workshops inspired by Louis blanc
○ 300 seats monarchs and 100 seats radical Republicans
○ However, The increase in the number of unemployed enrolled led to the closure.
● November 4, 1848, new constitution → unicameral legislative house
● Frankfurt was the Seat of Germanic Confederation issued by king Ferdinand William IV; dominated by educated, middle class delegates (debated over the composition of Germany)
○ Grossdeutsch = big Germany including Austria
○ Kleindeutsch = small Germany w/o Austria.
● Problems were solved when Austria withdrew but it failed to create a German state.
Austrian Empire:
● Hungarians wanted their own legislature.
○ Got it by swearing allegiance to the Habsburg dynasty.
● In Bohemia, Czechs demanded their own government.
● German states were successful in 1848; General Alfred suppressed the Czechs and took over Vienna.
● Russia intervened and crushed the revolt
● Ultimately, it failed
● Giuseppe Mazzini founded the “young italy” organization with a goal to unite italy.
● Cristina Belgioioso fled to France and started a newspaper advocating to unite italy.
● Revolts → Lombardy and Venetia against the Austrian empire
● 1849 - Austria took full control.
● Failed
Romanticism
a. Love of nature.
b. Individualism
c. Emphasis on heroic figures.
d. revival of medieval Gothic architecture.
e. emphasis on emotions and inner feelings.
f. Writers:
i. Edgar Allan Poe
ii. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
g. Poets:
i. poetry was the best literary form of romanticism
ii. direct expression of one’s soul.
iii. Percy Shelley: “Prometheus unbound”
Portrait of the revolt of human beings against the laws that oppress them.
iv. William Wordsworth: “Talking about nature”
Started to criticize science. Monster Frankenstein symbolizes the danger of science in which they try to destroy nature
h. Paintings:
i. Emotion and movement
ii. Reflection of the artist’s inner feelings
iii. Ex. “Rain, Speed, and Steam”, Turner.
● Existence of competitive nations.
○ European states wanted to acquire colonies abroad ports and coaling stations for their navies.
○ Colonies were a form of prestige and nationalism
○ Plays, newspapers and magazines caused people to be excited about expanding abroad.
● Imperialism was tied to Social Darwinism:
○ Europeans believe that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious and survive. Thus, superior races must dominate inferior races by military force to show how strong they are.
■ Europeans believed themselves to be the superior race
● Religious Motives:
○ Seek converts by travelling abroad.
○ European had a moral responsibility to civilize inferior nations.
● Economic Motives:
○ Great demand for natural resources not found in western countries (Oil, Rubber, and Tin)
○ Instead of trading, European investors advocated direct control.
○ Marxists associated imperialism with capitalism.
● South Africa:
○ The British had established themselves in South Africa by taking control of Cape Town.
○ Almost took over Transvaal but they recognized it as a free state.
○ Took over Rhodes.
○ The Boers wars from 1899-1902, Britain won.
○ Angola and Mozambique were a settlement for Portugese.
○ Algeria was taken over by the French.
○ Egypt was a source of interest for Britain (Suez canal)
○ Belgium → Central Africa
○ Germany → between 1884-1900, most of the rest of Africa was carved up by the European powers. Germany just entered the ranks of imperialist powers at this time.
● Impact: By 1914, Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal had carved up the complete African continent. Only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free states.
○ Despite the humanitarian rationalizations about the “white man’s burden,” Africa had been conquered by European states determined to form colonial empires.
○ Any peoples who dared to resist were simply devastated by the superior social unit of the Europeans. Military superiority was frequently in the midst of brutal treatment of blacks. Nor did Europeans hesitate to deceive the Africans to achieve their way.
● India: British dominance over India began after French withdrawal as a result of the Seven Years’ War.
● China: Great Britain practiced “informal empire”, where a state has significant influence over another nation’s economy w/o political control.
○ However, after fighting , China was forced to grant European states sovereign control over “treaty of ports”
● Indochina: France controlled Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos
● Indonesia: Controlled by the Dutch