The 'five solas' of Martin Luther:
● sola gratia (grace alone)
● sola fide (faith alone)
● sola scriptura (scripture alone)
● solus Christus (Christ alone)
● soli Deo Gloria (glory to God alone)
Martin Five Solas suggests that people's spiritual lives are specific to them
● Christian humanism was inspired by Renaissance ideas; they strived to reform the Church rather than abolish it
● Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin spread their belief about Catholic abuses and created new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice.
● The Catholic Counter-Reformation, Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent revived the Church as a religious practice, reforming some church practices as a result of the Protestant Reformation.
● Monarchs and princes also took to religious reform (“magisterial reform”) in an effort to gain greater control over religious life and morality.
● Religious upheavals overlapped with political and economic stability
● Issues of religious reform create conflicts between monarchy and nobility (French Wars of Religion)
● The Habsburgs were unable to restore Catholic unity
● States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests.
● France (the Edict of Nantes) allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain peace.
● The son of a prosperous mine owner.
● He was educated at the University of Erfurt
● He received a doctorate in theology
● Luther became a priest and joined the Augustine Friars where he assisted the poor.
● He strongly opposed the sale of indulgences
○ Caused him to write the 95 theses, in which he called for public reform
○ Indulgences are the sale of the forgiveness for sins for the dead and living
● He created the practice of Protestantism, appealing to many humanists because they reflected literature and reformed belief
● He was excommunicated as a result of the publishing of the 95 theses
○ He refused ex-communication and was placed under the ban of the empire under the Diet of Worms
● His ideas spread due to the use of the printing press, as well as via his translation of the New Testament in vernacular languages (the common language) rather than only in Latin
● His work appealed to townspeople, people in the clergy who were sympathetic to anticlericalism, and political authorities who were eager to exploit the Reformation to break with Rome and the Holy Roman Empire
● There were limits to Luther's radicalism; he attacked Jews and limited benefits to women
● Catholicism: faith and good works under the church's direct supervision
● Protestantism: through faith alone
● Catholicism: in scripture and the history of teachings of the church
● Protestantism: Sola scriptura, as understood by one's conscience; the Bible has the sole authority.
● Catholicism: In Rome, clerical and hierarchical removed from the laity
● Protestantism: the “priesthood of all believers”
● Catholicism: clericalism (celebrity, rejection of the world, monasticism, martyrdom)
● Protestantism: all vocations serving God have equal merit (the calling of marriage and family life, community) → you don’t have to live a religious life to serve God
● Christians rely on the scriptures
● Influenced by Erasmus and the Christian humanists; believed that churchman should work closely with Civil Authorities
The emergence of “radical” theologies: Anabaptist, Quakers, Baptists, etc
● Complete separation of religion from State
● Widespread dissatisfaction with socio-economic conditions caused German peasants to revolt
● Nobles, reacting to economic change, aggressively managing their properties (seizing common lands, new rent, and fees, etc)
● Opposed by Luther and Zwingli
○ Seen as a threat to civil order (they were concerned with religious liberty, not civil liberty)
● Peasants were slaughtered by the prince's Army
● Rejection of celibacy as contrary to human nature (marriage as the only remedy for lust)
● Christian marriage (Foundation of the community) as a contract, though not a holy sacrament
● Women's role: the “pastor's wife”, spiritual equality of men and women (but not true equality; the medieval assumption of male superiority remains)
● New morality: greater suspicion of single men and women
● Mixed impact on women: the ‘priesthood of all believers’ versus the loss of opportunity afforded to them in the Catholic Church (convents, etc)
● More far-reaching effect on European Society/history than Lutheranism through Calvin's remarkable leadership, Master scripture, persuasive orator, charismatic
● In daily life, Calvinism is a reflection of their spiritual life
● The Institutes of the Christian religion; God is absolutely Sovereign - omniscient, omnipresent man is a grain of sand (no free will)
● Predestination: Whether you end up in purgatory or Heaven is determined before you are even born
New monarchs take advantage of the religious upheaval to assert control over the church and their states
● Spain and France (strong Catholic monarchies) uphold Catholicism by exacting concessions from the church (Lay investiture, Church revenues [annates], etc.)
● England, also a strong monarchy, breaks with the church for political and economic reasons, and creates the Church of England (Anglican Church).
● The Holy Roman Empire (Habsburgs), a loose Federation of increasingly independent states, is fractured by the Reformation. Charles V is devout and sincere, seeking to defend Catholicism
War, diplomacy, marriage
● Frederick III (called Frederick the peaceful) marries princess Eleanore of Portugal
○ Their son, Maximilian, married Mary of Burgundy
● Maximilian marries his sons and daughters well - a son and daughter married to the children and heirs of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, rulers of southern Italy and the new world
● The grandson of Maximilian, Charles V, became emperor over much of the Catholic world
○ Charles V = pious Catholic who believed he was placed on the throne to maintain the religious integrity of the Christian world
● The practice of religion became a public matter: religious pluralism = political instability
● Civil War among Swiss cantons led to increasing religious violence in the Holy Roman Empire
● Charles V fighting to maintain political unity, but he failed
○ Habsburg-Valois Wars in Italy and South Germany
○ Invasions by the Ottoman Turks from the east
○ All of his attempts to repair religious division failed, resulting in war in 1546
● Peace of Augsburg (1555)
○ Northern and central Germany remain Lutheran
○ Southern Holy Roman Empire remains Catholic
○ France succeeds in weakening the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire
○ Social crisis: religious refugees
● Henry VIII sought to extend and consolidate Tudor monarchy
● Henry VIII removes Church from papal jurisdiction, due to the Pope’s refusal to annul Henry VIII’s marriage with Catherine of Aragon
● English gradually grew more Protestant as national identity emerged; resistance declined
● Queen Elizabeth sought to restore stability by moving the Anglican Church in a more moderate, inclusive direction
● The feeling of nationalism grew
● New religious ideas poised a new fundamental threat to the monarchs of France
● The weakness of the French monarchs grew from civil violence: the three weak sons of Henry II were “controlled” by Catherine
● Henry IV sacrificed religious principles to political necessity and saved France
● There was a long-term effect on the organization of states and communities
● The new monarchs took advantage of religious chaos to assert control over the church
● Western Europe: political and economic issues influence Reformation
● Eastern Europe: still largely feudal. Ethnic factors predominate. Eastern Europe is much more heterogeneous than Western Europe, with a powerful ethnic group led by the nobility
● German minority rules over Czech majority; Lutherans and Catholics vie for influence
● Poland/Lithuania: vast, but nobles are divided and the population is scattered / diverse
○ Germans adopt Lutheranism
○ Polish nobility (anti-german) attracted to Calvinism
○ Ordinary polls defend Catholicism and eventually, the Counter-Reformation succeeds
Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
anticlericalism
indulgences
Johann Tetzel
the Ninety-Five Theses
the Diet of Worms (1521)
Ulrich Zwingli
Colloquy of Marburg
the Holy Roman Empire
Anabaptists
the Peasants' War
the Habsburgs
Emperor Charles V
the Augsburg Confession
the Habsburg-Valois Wars
the Peace of Augsburg (1555)
Henry VIII (Tudor)
the Act of Supremacy (1534)
the Dissolution of the Monasteries
the Book of Common Prayer
Mary Tudor
Elizabeth I
the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)
the Spanish Armada
John Calvin and Calvinism
predestination
the 'calling’ (Protestant idea)
the Geneva Consistory
the Council of Trent
the Holy Office
Teresa of Avila
Angela Merici
Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits
Treaty of Cambeau-Cambresis (1559)
Concordat of Bologna
the Huguenots
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
the War of the Three Henrys
Henry IV (Bourbon)
the Edict of Nantes
the 'Council of Blood'
Union of Utrecht