Rationalisation of Sport

Popular recreation would eventually develop into what we now know as modern sport. The steps taken to change from this unstructured and occasional pastime to the highly organised and competitive modern sport are referred to as rationalisation. Rationalised sport is played regularly, it has sophisticated rules, there are codes of etiquette and sportsmanship. Often it is skill based with a highly structured organisation regarding boundaries, teams and timing.

A concept to remember for the exam is that rationalisation was moving from the "melting pot" of many variations of games and creating one model that would become a sport.

Codification is the term used to describe the formal writing and recording of the rules of a sport.

The Industrial Revolution is the period of time in Britain from the late 1700's to the early 1900's (18^th to 20^th Centuries). During this time people moved from the rural areas into towns, and communities developed around factories. The industrial revolution also consisted of the Urban and Transport revolutions as well as great advancements in machinery.

The Industrial Revolution occurred in the 19^th Century and improvements in technology advanced meaning the gentry started to build factories to produce goods that could be sold around the country and across the world. To work in the factories the lower classes moved to villages that surrounded the factories, or indeed the factory owners built houses, which they rented out, making more money. Villages became towns as more factories sprung up in an area, sparked by the migration of the lower class from rural to urban areas, in search of consistent paid work.

Urbanisation is the term used to describe the large scale movement of many lower class people from rural villages to factory towns in search of employment. This resulted in housing developments being built and diminished space to play their traditional mob activities.

The development of machines in factories it meant that the working day was no longer governed by the seasons but by ‘machine time’ creating more structure with workers expected to work from ‘dusk till dawn’, six days a week. Originally, the lifestyle for the working class was harsh with limited free time, low pay and poor working conditions. Indeed youngsters as young as five and six would work in the factories and with few employment laws there were many serious injuries or deaths. With high levels of pollution and poor cramped living conditions, leading to disease and a lack of health, hygiene and with such arduous work there was little energy to play sports.

Although there were some generous and thoughtful factory owners, many were callous and unforgiving. However, the working conditions improved with the Factory Acts (1833) and there was an increase in regular free time with the Saturday half day being introduced. At the end of the century paid holiday leave was introduced (one week per year). This period also saw the increases in levels of pay for certain jobs (e.g. supervisors and managers in the factories), which led to the emergence of a new social class; the middle class.

As the lower class moved from the villages to factory towns it led to a loss of open space, where they would have traditionally played popular recreations; however, with large numbers of people in one place entertainment was still needed. This lack of space meant that the ‘mass participation’ games had to reduce in size; with smaller teams, structured boundaries and set time limits due to the controlled working times. It would eventually lead to designated areas for sport to be played and most towns would build areas for football or cricket with space for paying spectators. However, it should be noted that this development of structured games occurred primarily as a result of rationalised sport in schools.

As the lower class moved from the villages to factory towns it led to a loss of open space, where they would have traditionally played popular recreations; however, with large numbers of people in one place entertainment was still needed. This lack of space meant that the ‘mass participation’ games had to reduce in size; with smaller teams, structured boundaries and set time limits due to the controlled working times. It would eventually lead to designated areas for sport to be played and most towns would build areas for football or cricket with space for paying spectators. However, it should be noted that this development of structured games occurred primarily as a result of rationalised sport in schools.

As the rural lower classes populated the towns they brought localised variations to their recreations and games together, this meant they formed new games merging or discarding the regional rules. Improvements in the transport system such as rail links allowed for movement between towns and the spread of regional variations in these sports. To save confusion, the sports in schools began to become codified, rules were developed and written down. Industrialisation required more people to be educated, e.g. office staff or accountants and as more people became educated rules and regular fixtures and leagues were formed. For example the Northern Football League was set up in late 1800's, in part helped by the fact that the workers from the local mines or factories having a Saturday afternoon off.

The factory owners began to realise the impact that sports had on their workers; increasing levels of fitness meant more productive workers. Also happier workers meant they were more likely to stay working at the factory and not leave in search for other work. These factors led to ‘patronage’, where the wealthy industrialists would set up factory teams and organised team excursions to play against one another. This was partly due to keeping the workers happy but also because it was another way of publicising the factory and gaining social status if the team was successful. Some of the more entrepreneurial factory owners saw the commercial value of charging people to watch the matches and this started the rise of spectatorism and professionalism as factory teams began to bring an income from gate receipts.

As wage increases allowed for a new social structure, the emergence of the middle class impacted on the development of sport. This new class had a disposable income and free time to spend on sport and recreation. Society became more civilised and the violent mob activities became restricted and eventually banned. Sport became used as a form of social control and gave a moral focus with individuals learning etiquette and abiding by the rules. The middle class were keen to separate themselves from the working class and developed lawn tennis and cycling for their own identity. With more people being educated and transport and media becoming more popular, reports of sport became more popular and this raised the profile of sports like football, athletics and rugby as well as the best performers.

The church has played a key role in both popular recreation and rationalised modern sports. Mob football, cricket and other popular recreations were played on holy days and festivals and this linked them to the church because it was a chance for people to meet and socialise. Having large numbers of people in one place enabled team games to form and the church would act as patrons for some participants and offer prizes for competitions. These activities were often played on church grounds or beside them. However, the drinking and violence that was associated with blood sports and mob games was frowned upon by members of the church and this helped in it becoming the more civilised recreational sport. The church saw that sports could capture the imagination and interest of people and therefore promoted activities that could be used as a social control and develop positive cultural characteristics and improve the morals of the lower classes. Dwindling numbers from church services meant the church had to think of new ways to keep their congregation. This led to church providing facilities, especially for youngsters who attended Sunday school. Some churches also set up girl guide, scout or boys brigade clubs, trying to encourage youngsters to attend mass; using games and sports to entice them in. Football and cricket teams emerged from the church, particularly from the ex-public schoolboys who attended the service. For example, Everton, Tottenham Hotspur, Bolton Wanderers and Aston Villa were all teams that started out as church teams. As many of the clergy were ex-public school boys they had witnessed how sport could be used to develop positive behaviours and maintain a healthy lifestyle and this also meant that they were keen to promote sport and physical activity.

It is generally thought that the English public schools are the birthplace of modern sports. In 1810 Sydney Smith described public schools as “... an endowed place of education of standing to which the sons of gentlemen resort in considerable numbers and where they reside from eight to nine to eighteen years of age”. It was not until the 20^th Century that state schools were introduced. From then sport has played a critical role within both these systems of education.

In the early 19^th Century the education system was centred on a handful of public schools. These schools were fee paying institutions making them elitist which only the upper and middle class could afford. Trustees controlled the schools and were keen to promote them through activities including sporting success. The schools were also ‘endowed’ which means they received large gifts including money and property thus enabling the schools to invest in the grounds and develop sophisticated facilities.

Public schools were often set in rural areas with the pupils boarding. Public schools were single sex with only boys attending. Life was harsh at public schools with a Spartan-ethos and engrained with regular bullying.

There are three stages in the development of sports in public schools which help to identify the key changes in school culture and its impact on sports.

Stage 2: Social Control

This stage is often referred to as being under “Arnoldian” influence, due to the work of Dr Thomas Arnold, Headmaster of Rugby School (1828-1842) who was regarded as the father of public school athleticism. Dr Arnold recognised the value of sports that could be developed to influence pupils’ behaviour at school, in channelling the boys’ energy and enthusiasm into games; toughening up the body and building character.

This reform at Rugby School aimed at improving boys’ behaviour, using sport to promote a code of ethics and build upon moral and educational values. Arnold used this social control to make the school more civilised and he used games as his vehicle for achieving this introducing games afternoons and setting up inter-house competitions. His aims to broaden the curriculum meant that the games became more formal with written rules, establishing relationships between players and basic playing techniques. The benefits of this reform were to change the morals of the pupils; reducing bullying and promoting more Christian values through physical activity.

Arnold made the chapel the centre of school life and in raising Christian gentlemen he saw the start of Muscular Christianity. Arnold built more friendly relationships with the pupils inviting 6th form boys to tea, giving them more responsibility and raising the status of 6^th form students and integrating the role of prefects. These boys became role models for younger boys and had power to discipline younger boys. They were also given the responsibility of the organisation of house games. This improved the relationships with masters creating a more trusting atmosphere between the masters and pupils.

Bullying was punished, rules on corporal punishment changed and there was a clamp down on fighting between the boys. Finally, Dr Arnold forbade trespassing on neighbours land preventing poaching and used the developing sports to keep boys on site. This improved social relationships within school and with the school’s neighbours.

Soon after, other headmasters followed Dr Arnold’s example and sport was recognised as a reliable method for social control at 19^th Century schools and eventually inter school competitions developed.

Stage 3: Athleticism

In the final stage of development of sport in public schools, sport became more organised. Boys from the public schools attended universities such as Oxford and Cambridge taking their school games with them. Again, the regional variations of games created a ‘melting pot’ and hybrid versions were developed. Sets of rules were established for these games and ‘rational sport’ began to emerge. As these students graduated, they took these sports with them and filled positions in society such as in industry, churches, the army and some became school masters. These new enthusiastic teachers, who had ‘been through the system’, introduced their sports to the pupils and became involved in coaching; some schools introduced professional coaches, improved facilities such as games fields and courts which were paid for by additional contributions from the schools ‘old boys’. Headmasters supported the sport by making games compulsory and changed the patterns of the school day to include afternoon games, allowing for inter-house and inter-school fixtures. Games playing soon became an obsession and special festivals such as sports day were organised.

In 1864 the Clarendon report reviewed education in public schools and gave considerable recognition to the character building value of games played in these schools such as leadership, loyalty and teamwork. This character building principle of health and fitness is referred to as Athleticism, the physical values of playing sport. It is the pursuit of physical endeavour that develops manliness and robustness. Athleticism involved moral integrity and appreciating the value of healthy exercise and fitness, the discipline of rule-regulated activity and discipline of physical preparation.

Muscular Christianity was a similar concept developed at this ‘stage of athleticism’ and was centred around ethical values of sport, such as:

· Working for a team and loyalty to the cause,

· Conforming to the rules (written and unwritten),

· The principle that playing honourably is more important that winning and

· Using ‘God-given’ abilities or performance dedicated to God.

Key term

‘Blue’

Blue is a term for someone who has represented Oxford or Cambridge University at a sport.

The Clarendon Commission (1864)

Currently schools are inspected by Ofsted who produce a report on how schools are run and are performing. In 1864 a similar report was commissioned by the Earl of Clarendon to “...inquire into the revenues and management of certain colleges and schools and studies pursued and the instructions given there”. These public schools and colleges were Charterhouse, Eton, Harrow, Merchant Taylors, Shrewsbury, St Paul’s, Westminster and Winchester; these schools became known as the Clarendon Schools.

This report coincided with Stage 3 of the development of Public Schools and strengthened the position of the headmasters in these institutions; much like the influential Dr Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby School (1828-42). The Clarendon commission discovered that 19th century public school education built ‘character’ in pupils. However, it suggested that there was a great deal of change needed. The report acknowledged the importance of organised team games, stressing the positive and educational features of these games as a driving force of ‘character’ building. Emphasis was placed on moral qualities such as the ability to ‘take knocks’, display courage and loyalty to a group, rather than the development of individual sporting skills. The inspectors recommended that team games such as cricket and football were important in developing social and masculine qualities; less useful activities included Hare and Hounds, gymnastics and military drills (although many did focus on individual qualities). The report was significant as it gave official justification for the use of physical activity in an organised manner and team games became central to school lives of boys.

Relationship Between Public Schools and the Development of NGBs

Between 1860 and 1900, many national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport were formed in England; this is because of the ‘melting pot’ of games in public schools and universities, meaning that hybrid games where devised. The public schools and universities began to compete with each other in ‘Varsity’ matches and as the players were educated, it enabled the rules to be written down with the sports becoming codified. The increased fixtures required more uniforms to distinguish between teams, leagues to be administered and standardised rules to be enforced; the Cambridge rules of football in 1848 were an example of this. As the ‘old boys’ took up positions in society there was an increase in the number of sports clubs competing with one and other. Due to transport developments the ‘old boys’ took the sports to different parts of the world/country resulting in competition on an international/national level. Growing competition levels resulted in the need for more competitions and tournaments and a greater necessity to vet competitors and clubs, in an attempt to maintain the amateur code. As the working class did not have the power or skills to be administrators, the educated ‘old boys’ filling influential positions in society and in sports clubs, became involved in the formation of NGBs such as the Football Association in 1863. As these ‘old boys’ had a lot of leisure time to fill and were used to being leaders in society, they had the suitable skills to be administrators in the NGBs. This also allowed the upper classes to control leisure of the working class giving sport a moral focus.

The role of Oxford and Cambridge

Universities was key in the development of modern sport and is often referred to as ‘the melting pot’. This reflects the process whereby the prospective students brought to university many different rules for the same game and it was here that there was an attempt to rationalise the rules and create one standardised set.

A good example of this was the Cambridge rules of football drawn up by a committee of undergraduates in 1848. The Oxbridge rules did not fully solve the problem and it was the formation of governing bodies beginning with the formation of the FA (Football Association) in 1863 that finally established rational sport. The new governing bodies not only governed and controlled their own sports in the UK but, due to the status of the British Empire, many of our governing bodies became the world’s sports regulators. The Lawn Tennis Association and the Royal and Ancient Club (golf) are examples. The competitions these two bodies set up (Wimbledon and the Open Championship) became world-renowned events.