Guidance & Feedback

Visual Guidance

Visual guidance involves showing the performer what to do or how they are performing. Visual guidance can be presented in the following ways:

Demonstrating – It is important that the demonstration must be the perfect model and delivered by a skilled performer. This demonstration must be correct and will be more effective if performed by a role model or someone of similar age, gender and ability to the learner. It is important that the observers can see and hear the demonstration if guidance is to be successful. The demonstration should highlight any important aspects, if possible the skill can be broken down and verbal cues can be given at the same time. The demonstration should be brief and the learners should be given time to mentally rehearse the skill before attempting it. As mentioned earlier, demonstrating ‘what not to do’ or common mistakes can also be beneficial so performers can identify weaknesses in their own and others’ performances. Slow motion demonstrations are also helpful, particularly in some ballistic skills (e.g. slowing down a golf swing so a learner can pick up on key coaching points).

Video – the learner can be shown a video of an elite performer. Video can also be used to record the performance of the learner for viewing to analyse their technique. A benefit of videoing skilled performances is that the skill can be videoed from different angles and different playback speeds can be utilised to emphasise key points. Posters, charts and photographs can also be used.

Modification of the display – in football you may see the goal keeper mark a line on the six-yard box level with the centre of the goal so they can judge their position better. In a relay race a sprinter receiving the baton will set off when their team-mate reaches a certain point on the track and they may use a piece of tape to mark out this point.

Verbal Guidance

Verbal guidance is a common technique where the coach gives participants instructions to perform the action. For verbal guidance to be successful the coach needs to make sure:

• Learners can hear what is being said.
• They alter the pitch and tone of their delivery. A dull monotone means learners may not pay attention.
• They use terminology that can be understood. For example it would probably be a waste of time telling a Year 5 football player to ‘concentrically contract their Illiopsoas muscle to cause flexion at the hip joint’ when teaching them how to shoot!

Manual/mechanical Guidance

Manual or mechanical guidance is often used in potentially dangerous movements:

Manual guidance is the physical manipulation of performer’s body by a coach. An example would be in gymnastics when a performer attempts a handspring on a box. The coach might physically hold or support the performer through the movement. Giving this support enables the coach to control the movement of the performer allowing them to experience, kinaesthetically, the skill correctly, and also ensure the safety of the performer during the movement.

Mechanical guidance involves the use of apparatus or equipment to support or assist a performer as they execute a movement. For example, the use of a harness in trampolining when a performer is learning to somersault or when a child learns to ride a bike using stabilisers. In golf numerous devices have been developed to improve putting technique. As with manual guidance, the security of the support enables the learner to develop kinaesthetic awareness in a safe environment.

Feedback is an important part of information processing when learning and performing skills. When used successfully it can help to provide confidence, reinforcement and motivation for the performer. It can help to inform a performer of their current progress and allow them to correct errors and improve performances.

Intrinsic Feedback

Intrinsic feedback comes from within the performer often called the ‘feel’ of the movement. As they complete an action they will know whether or not the action was performed correctly. They receive information from their touch receptors, balance mechanism in the inner ear and stretch receptors in the muscles is termed proprioceptive feedback. Kinaesthetic feedback refers to the information fed directly into the spinal cord from the muscles, tendons and joints to give information that can be responded to without conscious control giving knowledge of where the body is in space.

Extrinsic Feedback

Extrinsic feedback is when external information is provided about the performance. When the performer produces a skill, information is gained from their environment or others people such as coaches, team mates and the crowd. An example of extrinsic feedback is when a hockey player sees the ball go into the net or when a coach gives verbal guidance to a javelin thrower about their technique.

Positive Feedback

Positive feedback, or giving praise, encourages and reinforces successful performance increasing the chance of a particular action being repeated.

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is when an action is not successful and feedback is used to discourage a repeat performance. The performer will receive advice on how to correct the fault. Constructive criticism is often needed for performers to improve. However, coaches must not overdo this as it could result in reduced self-confidence or learned helplessness.

Terminal Feedback

Terminal feedback is presented after a performance and can be immediate or delayed. It is more likely that performers will remember an incident if feedback is given immediately at the end of a performance. Performers will usually have a debrief with a coach to identify strengths and weaknesses, with a view to adjusting the practice schedule for the following week.

Concurrent Feedback

Concurrent feedback is when performers receive feedback whilst they are performing the skill or activity. This feedback can be intrinsic and extrinsic but the performer must utilise selective attention to prevent performance becoming disrupted by focusing on the wrong cues.

Knowledge of Performance (KP)

Knowledge of performance is the information that the performer receives about the quality of their technique or performance. It gives them information for their success or failure and is often information regarding the movement pattern. This information can be intrinsic with the ‘feel’ of the movement, or it can be extrinsic for example a squash coach explaining to the performer that they did not have their racket ‘up’ in the correct position before taking shots. The coach can use videos to provide this information and must emphasise the performance rather than the result.

Knowledge of Results (KR)

Knowledge of results is the information the performer receives regarding the outcome of a performance, whether or not they were successful. If a performer is practising the free throw in basketball, they will see if they are succeeding or not based on if the ball goes through the hoop. If they miss they require feedback from the coach on how to correct the fault (KP). In developing schema, KR is linked with KP so that improvements can be made. For example if basketball player shoots but doesn’t reach the basket they will link the memories of the ball dropping short with the feelings and velocity of the joint actions so will push the ball harder in their next attempt.

Effective Feedback

For feedback to be effective the coach must take into account some important points. The timing of feedback is crucial, the coach should provide it as soon as possible and ideally as terminal feedback. This ensures the performer takes the most information in when reflecting on the performance. The feedback should be relevant and meaningful for the performer to use, it should be clear and specific to the performance in question. As the short term memory has a limited capacity the quality of feedback is important and needs to be succinct with not too much or too little information for the performer to process. Feedback needs to be individual to the performer rather than to the group, and it needs to encourage the performer to recognise intrinsic feedback this helps them to learn to feel the different movements. It is advised that feedback uses different methods and can be both verbal and visual which should be recorded for subsequent reflection.

It is important that the coach considers which stage of learning the performer is in as different stages require different types of feedback.

Open Loop Control of Movement

Feedback can be involved in information processing models. However, often skills are performed without feedback and this was termed as open loop control. Often open loop control occurs when performing ballistic skills or when there is only a short period of time to execute the skill. For example, in a slip catch, a cricket palyer will have only fractions of a second to choose a motor programme and execute it. In open loop control often feedback is available but there is no time to act on it. Once a motor programme has been put into action there is no feedback involved. This often means that if the wrong motor programme is selected, it can lead to very amusing results. Just watch any ‘sports bloopers’ programme to see examples! With regards to learning, after the skill has been performed, knowledge of results can be used to improve future performances.

Closed Loop Control of Movement

Adams (1971) proposed a Closed Loop Theory which introduced the notion of feedback in skill production. The use of feedback is involved in detecting and correcting errors during the performance of sports skills. A simple example of this is when a gymnast performs a handstand. In the handstand position, if they start to lose balance, the proprioceptors will detect changes in balance and as a result of processing the information from these receptors, the brain will trigger muscular contractions to maintain the handstand.

There are thought to be two levels of control in closed loop. ‘Level 2’ (‘Level 1 is open loop control) control involves reflex actions, controlled by the CNS, which allow for quick sub-conscious adjustments during the performance of a skill. ‘Level 3’ control involves the brain interpreting this intrinsic feedback, so this conscious control occurs more slowly and often results in jerky movements.

Because comparisons have to be made so adjustments can take place. Closed loop control usually occurs during skills that are performed over a longer time period. Adams proposed two ‘traces’ to use when detecting and correcting errors;

• The memory trace is used for selecting then initiating a motor programme. In a particular situation, a certain skill is selected and this operates as an open loop system. Therefore the memory trace is not involved in the control of the movement as it is executed.
• The perceptual trace controls the movement once it has started. The perceptual trace is a compared to the memory trace so when there a deviation from the perfect execution of the motor programme, adjustments can be made. The perceptual trace involves interpretation of intrinsic feedback that is provided as the motor action is being performed so any errors can be corrected.